Indian Caste system

INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM: A REAPPRAISAL

SUDERSHAN RAO, YELLAPRAGADA

About the author:

Sudershan Rao, Yellapragada is a senior professor of history in the Department of History & Tourism Management, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, India. He has been serving for over three decades in the University system holding various administrative and academic positions like, Head, Dean of Social Sciences, Chairman of Board of Studies and Chairman of University Forum for Social Studies. He was awarded National fellowship by the University Grants Commission, Govt. of India, during 1993-95 for his project on 'Understanding Indian History - Search for an alternative' and currently nominated to the Indian Council of Historical Research, Ministry of HRD, and Govt of India. 

Preface

I have spoken regarding this essay of mine in a recent interview and felt it is relevant to include it here to provide context and clarification:

Ms Poonam Pandey  Interviewing Prof Y Sudershan Rao, Chairman, ICHR, 14 Aug 2015 Navbharat Times (Hindi)

Q.  What are your views on caste system of India? You have praised this practice in your blog "Indian Caste System: A Reappraisal"?

A: This is again a misconception of my note on the Caste System which I uploaded into my blog way back in 2007. It is not a comprehensive research paper. This was written in response to a request of an NRI who expressed some doubts on Indian social systems. I made a clear distinction between Caste System and Casteism, the former was ancient and the latter relates to present. Caste System was different from Varna System. Caste identifies families pursuing various occupations and obligations in a social organization whereas Varna was individualistic and its goal is spiritual evolution. Caste, in course of time, became a rigid structure owing to its economic foundations, but Varna has been ever flexible. In historical period, Caste and Varna are mixed up and what we find today both the strands made a twine. While the Varna System was claimed to have been found as a manifestation of Virat Purusha during much later Sukta period,  according to our ancient literature, Caste System has no such claims. It was an evolved system as an answer to the then given circumstances or social or civilizational developments. Any human system evolves in a historical process. As a System it had its own advantages or disadvantages. The ancient System in course of time gathered negative features and became redundant as all human institutions and systems. Similarly, the ‘system’ has transformed into rigid ‘ism’ as rigid as a religion. This created many discriminations between man and man culminating itself into a horrible crime against humanity. It is further strengthened and  misused in the electoral politics. I don’t think any wise man, much less a student of history, would appreciate continuance of ‘Casteism’ any further. If any one seriously reads my note and raises questions, it is my duty to clarify my stand

                                                                                                                       14 Aug 2015

                                                                                                                        Prof. Y.Sudershan Rao

                               

                                       Caste System :  A Reappraisal

Caste system as all other social and economic systems has come under fire in the modern times. With the changes in the political structure from at least medieval times, Indian religion, which is popularly known as Hinduism, was threatened of its very existence during the Muslim invasions at the wake of the second millennium. However, Islam could not make a heavy impact on the demographical texture of India, because after three hundred years of Muslim rule, the rulers pursuing alien religion had to strike a compromise with the Hindu subjects. Hindus at large exhibited preparedness to lay even their lives or pay heavy penalties for pursuing their Dharma as it is said in the Bhagawad Gita that even death might be preferred for being steadfast in one's own dharma. Most of the questionable social customs in the Indian society as pointed out by the English educated Indian intellectuals and the Western scholars could be traced to this period of Muslim rule in north India spanning over seven centuries. During this period, to save the honor of their women and dharma at large, medieval Pundits rewrote sastras with some stringent conditions, which attracted the condemnation and criticism of the present intellectuals who could not see through the historical reasons for such interpolations,

The ancient Rishis have given us the law codes to suit to the prevailing conditions of those respective periods of time. But these Smrithis were not the legal codes enforceable by law of the land. They were supposed to guide the people in matters of the personal, family and societal conduct of an individual like the present day Directive Principles of the State Policy of Indian Republic.

The questions and condemnations of the modern scholars on Indian Caste System can be classified under the following heads:

a) Caste being inherited by birth in the family where the individual has

no choice preventing upward mobility of the communities in the

social system.

b) Caste compels one to continue to take up the occupation of his

father.

c) Restrictions connected with dining and arranging marriages with in

the caste.

d) Inequalities perpetuated for generations in respect of social and

economic status.

e) 'Inhuman' social customs like untouchability.

f) Restrictions in respect of access to 'education' and the Holy

Scriptures or the religions practiced by the elite sections of the

population.

The Caste system as such is based on social classification which is a common feature of all organized civil societies round the world but not unique to India alone. The feature could be found in all ancient civilizations of the World since about 4^th cen B.C as we find in the proto-historical civilizations of, Sumeria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, China and India. Of all these known civilized societies, only Indian and Chinese civilizations are surviving to date. Of the two, Indian civilization is much older as evident from its world's oldest literature, which was preserved and handed down to generations in oral tradition. The 'continuity and change' is the underlying principle of Indian culture, which has contributed to the survival of its various social systems along with its civilization, and culture. Indian tradition is the outcome of the selfless service of the ancient Rishis. The uniqueness of Indian situation lies in the fact that Indian civilization has developed on a strong cultural base, generally known as Sanathana Dharma. (Sanathana means a system which is 'eternal but ever fresh' and Dharma the 'appropriateness of action' which has to satisfy certain parameters like, right attitude, correct perspective, unity of purpose and proper timing of action).

As all man-made institutions and systems, Indian Caste system also came into existence in the evolutionary process of the civilization to answer certain requirements of complicated living of the people based on material compulsions. The system was working well in ancient times and we do not find any complaint from any quarters against it. It is often misinterpreted as an exploitative social system for retaining economic and social status of certain vested interests of the ruling class applying the Marxist jargon which has no respect for the ancient systems and philosophy whether Indian or the other. Some institutions in course of time become redundant when they outlive their need. Indian Caste system, which has evolved to answer the requirements of civilization at a later phase of development of culture, was integrated with the Varna system as enunciated in the ancient scriptures and Dharmasastras.

The Varna System classifies functions and attitudes of a human being addressing entire humanity. The basic qualities and attitudes of an individual are governed by the composition of his mental framework with different proportions of sattva, rajas and tamas, the trigunas (We do not have equivalents to these Indian terms in other languages. Sattva may indicate an attitude of peaceful disposition, rajas, an attitude of dynamism and tamas, a state of ignorance. Since these are the basic characteristics of every human being, there cannot be any change at any point of time in human nature. The institutions built on the economic or political philosophies will not last long as the political power and wealth (representing in the divine personification as Goddess Lakshmi) are unstable and migratory in nature. So they cannot build stable and lasting systems. But Indian Varna system as it is based on the general characteristics of humanity does not change according to the time and clime. However, Indian caste system, which is more connected to the social and material life of people, will undergo change on the peripherals while retaining the basic framework based on the Varna system.

The Varna classification and Caste system are not one and the same. They differ in respect of aims and functions in many ways. The caste system classifies the community while the Varna classifies the functions of an individual. Varna leads one to Moksha (the liberation of the soul) while Caste system is meant for the material and human resource management of a civilized society. There is flexibility in the interchange of Varna as we have several examples in the ancient literature of individuals born in Shudra castes acquiring Brahma Jnana (the Ultimate Knowledge). The Caste system is rigid in the sense that one does not lose his caste even after changing his profession or occupation owing to family tie-ups. Caste system retains and preserves the family culture through the generations. Caste system is further strengthened with religious bond as each family belongs to respective religious customs or traditions within the larger Hindu fold. Therefore one is born in a family belonging to a caste while Varna is acquired by the individual through his effort. Change of occupation does not entitle one to a higher Varna. No one is barred from acquiring Brahma Jnana, no matter to what cast he might belong. We have several examples from Ramayana and Mahabharatha. Vidura though a Brahma Jnani, is considered Shudra while Drona being a Brahmin was in royal service. Drona is considered a fallen Brahmin for accepting joining the service of a king but he was not considered a Kshatriya. Karna being Anga Raja was not welcome into Kshatriya fold though he was born to an unmarried Kshatriya girl, because of his antecedents and questionable birth. According to the Dharmasastras all individuals are born as Shudra and they acquire the Varna through Samskaaras or training or tapas. The modern and Western intellectuals have not properly understood and misinterpreted the Varna and the Caste as one and the same. The caste system finds no sanctity from the ancient scriptures. Indian philosophical schools only addressed the individual and through him the society. The Varna addresses the individual while caste addresses the community. Therefore, one's caste is not lost with the change in occupation or economic status. However, one is free to choose his occupation irrespective of his caste. The foreign ruling tribes, which came to stay here for historical and political reasons, managed to acquire Kshatriya status by using force and through nominal Samskaaras. Otherwise, one has to join the Shudra fold and move upward.

The misunderstandings of the system may be ascribed to misreading of the Texts of Dharmasastras and the impact of the modern 'democratic' and electoral politics. Ancient system of caste organization has been turned into casteism, which negates the very purpose of the system. The matters relating to marriage, common dining and personal occupation are mainly family preferences in a Hindu society, which every member of the family is expected to honor the commitment. Individual's disagreement is only exceptional. Indian culture aims at molding an individual psyche to surrender and sacrifice his personal preferences to uphold family traditions, customs and commitments. As far as dining is concerned, except Brahmins and Vysyas (merchant community), the rest have no difficulty to have mixed common dining since the Brahmins and Vysyas prefer vegetarian food. Demand for cleanliness and choice of food, choice of company to dine together cannot be curtailed in a civilized society. Though there are no specific injunctions preventing common dining among the members of the same caste, individual's social and economic status and personal choices would not allow all of them to mix freely, Similarly, marriage is considered vital to maintain and continue the family as a basic unit of the society. A disciplined family honoring the unity of leadership of the eldest of the family and to secure the protection and general interests of each member of the family is a prerequisite for a disciplined society and the well being of every citizen. Even within the caste, a father wants to get satisfied on many counts and family considerations outweigh personal choices in fixing a match. That is only in the larger interests of his family. Indian marriage is not an affair of likes and dislikes of two individuals irrespective of their gender whether they are homosexual or heterosexual (since we see in the modern times legalizing marriages between the same sex as the pinnacle of individual freedom). In Indian system one is not just married to another but one is married into another family. It is not matching of two individuals but in a marriage two families with their respective bandwagons of relatives and friendly families are matched. But in the ancient times, there were eight kinds of marriages and inter-caste marriages, known as anuloma and viloma (low caste groom marrying the higher caste bride and vice versa) were not uncommon. If such marriages were not permitted, how could there be more than 300 castes (or sub-castes) during the Kautilya's period.(4th cen B.C).Mahabharatha tells us that there were no injunctions prohibiting inter caste marriages. Even a great Kshatriya like Bhima had married a tribal woman Hidimbi and got a son through her who had also fought in the Great War with all the honors of a great warrior. We come across only post-puberty marriages in ancient Indian literature. Even selection of groom by a girl of marriageable age, known as Swayamwara was in vogue. Sati (self immolation of widow) prevalent only among the Kshatriya ruling families was also optional. but not compulsory. Madri, second wife of Pandu Raja committed Sati more out of guilt for causing her husband's death than out of compulsion while Kunti, the first wife of Pandu, opted out to live. A careful study of scriptures and the ancient literature of Itihasaas and Puraanaas would help understand the nuances of Indian culture. Most of the present day social evils in the Indian society are not deep rooted but their origin can be traced only from the historical period, more from the historical developments of the last millennium when Indian culture received rude shocks under the unsympathetic alien rule.

With the radical changes in the production sector resulting in dominating commercialism and growing consumerism, the world is seemingly transforming into a single and uniform mode of cultural pattern. Indian society is also rapidly changing outwardly to suit to the times, which would help the society to lose what was thrust on it in the recent past. The social evils connected to Indian society as ascribed to it by modern intellectuals are fast fading. But the roots of positive aspects of Indian culture are so deep that the merits of ancient systems would be rejuvenated. This would not only benefit Indian society but also help the world community to live a meaningful and purposeful life, which is, of course, not a distant future.

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Spirituality and Indian Nationalism

ICHR National Seminar on

“Philosophical Foundations of Indian Nationalism”

At Nehru Memorial Library, New Delhi

(28 Feb-2 Mar 2003)

Spirituality and Indian Nationalism – A Case study

Y. Sudershan Rao[*]

Spirituality is not only unique to Indian culture but also distinguishes Indian character from those of the other nations in the world. Since times immemorial, the Indian culture though accommodating small amends in its physical aspects necessitated by the demands of time and clime stands on a broad frame work of four basic columns with four sub columns each, namely, the four Vedas, four Purusharthas, four Ashramas and four Varnas. Each Veda, again, has four sub divisions, namely, Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad which constitute basic mantras, rituals, philosophy of the rituals and the wisdom based on inquiry in to the secrets of being, respectively. Thus, the fourth part of each Veda constitutes spiritual knowledge of the great sages. On the same lines, among the four Purusharthas, viz., Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, the ultimate aim of the life of an individual relates to spirituality. Among the four Ashramas, viz., Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa, the fourth Ashrama of a man is devoted to the spiritual pursuits. So also, of the four Varnas which show the four different types of functions of four main parts of body of an individual, the functions of the intellect represented by ‘face’ of an individual lead to spiritual progress. Basic knowledge (Veda) and the way of life according to dharma are acquired by an individual during his brhamacharya ashram by serving (the service is represented by the feet of an individual) his Master. Later he enters Grihastha ashram and earns resources to fulfill his desires as represented by the functions of one’s stomach following prescribed rituals stated in Brahmanas. After reaching a stage of contentment with the fulfillment of desires adhering to the principles of dharma and practicing the scriptural procedures, he should be courageous (varna representing the shoulders for bravery) to leave the worldly life and adopt Vanaprastha ashrama. Towards the evening of his life, he endeavors to attain Brahminhood through the Upanishadic wisdom and spiritual experience which may further lead him to the ultimate goal, the Moksha. Thus, all these aspects are meant to evolve an individual passing through a material life. In this path of graded progression, no stage or no function or no aspiration or no part of knowledge are either overstated or understated. Each one of them is given equal importance according to the situation an individual is placed in. Therefore, Indian culture is built on a sound foundation of knowledge, dharma, brahmacharya and the dignity of physical labor while its surface structure rests on the other two aspects of each branch. Top of all these constitutes wisdom, vairagya, brahminhood and moksha. Thus spirituality in India stands on a concrete objective base supported by well formulated design for material living. Spirituality evolves the object into abstract through a graded and well guarded path. It does not reject comfortable living or sensual pleasures or denounce the social or political responsibilities of a person as long as he continues to live in the society. Everything has a proper place in Indian culture.

The Speaking Tree

Veda Varna Ashrama Purushartha

Upanishad Brahman Sanyasa Moksha

(Wisdom) (Intellect) (Vairagya) (Liberation) Spiritual

Aranyaka Kshatriya Vanaprastha Kama

(Philosophy) (Bravery) (Jijnasa) (Contentment) Psychical

Brahmana Vaishya Grihastha Artha Objective

(Rituals) (Production) (Obligations) (Resources for

fulfillment)

Samhitha Shudra Brahmacharya Dharma Foundation

(Knowledge) (Obedience) (Learning) (Conduct)

The entire structure is designed for an individual who has realised that his life has a goal and that his living has a purpose. Thus Indian culture is aimed at culturing an individual rather than stratifying the society. However, there is no injunction that one should follow only this gradual path for the salvation. One could also develop a detached attitude towards the worldly pleasures or comforts and engage himself in the service of his fellowmen or country as a path for his liberation. Despite numerous paths, this spirit of inquiry into the phenomenon of being, which is known as Jijnasa, shaped the Indian psyche and characterized Indian culture unique. Since all life is only material, even the sages or sanyaasis living in the forests for their spiritual pursuits also did not shun their obligations to the society in the hour of need. There are many instances in the Puranas and the epics that such Rishis had not only interfered to depose a bad ruler and punish him for his misdeeds as common man’s life became miserable but also installed a good ruler or a new dynasty of rulers or caused the birth of such great rulers or founders of a good dynasty.

In the historical period, there are several such occasions where great spiritual personalities or conscientious intellectuals took the lead to set the things right in the polity when it failed to protect the Dharma for an orderly society. The overthrow of the mighty and headstrong Nandas of Magadh was successfully monitored by Acharya Chanakya. There is a legend in the Telugu folklore that a spiritual minded Brahmin caused the birth of Salivahana, the founder of the Satavahana Empire, marrying a potter’s woman. The imperial Kakatiya line started with the installation of Rudradeva by a Saiva saint according to literary and epigraphical sources. It is an established fact that sage Vidyaranya played a significant role in the founding of Vijayanagara Empire. Even in the establishment of Bahamani Empire, it is said that a Brahman gentleman had a role to play. It is of course well known that Samartha Rama Das was a great source of inspiration and guidance to Chatrapathi Sivaji in building up a Maratha Empire. All these great inspirers who opted to stay behind the curtain did not take any advantage for themselves nor continued to stay put beyond the time that their presence was required. Discharging their obligation to the society when their involvement was warranted with a spirit of detachment to the mundane world for their temporary selfish benefits has been a healthy sign of the Indian society. This has also paved the way for the mass participation in the national struggle for freedom under the inspiration of such leaders who took the mantle in their hands when the situation demanded and opted to go into oblivion after the achievement of the cause.

For the national awakening in India, many such personalities came to the fore front of the struggle and led the people. Swami Dayanada Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda, Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Sri Aurobindo, Mahatma Gandhi, Annie Besant, Jyothiba Phule, Narayanaguru and the list goes endless. In the cases of ancient monarchial system, any one spiritual master could deliver the goods. But Indian colonial State under the British imperialism offered a complex political situation requiring a concerted action involving general public who were not politically conscious in the modern parlance who were stretched over the length and breadth of this sub continent. Awakening Indian people and mobilizing them for an effective political action needed various strategies. This had also necessitated the rise of regional movements, caste movements and socio-religious reform movements originating at different places and spreading to the other regions. Each region offered some peculiarities and warranted a different strategy of its own. Surprisingly, the writings and speeches of some spiritual personalities like Rabindranath Tagore, Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda Saraswathi and others also inspired the youth to adopt terrorist strategies. Tilak’s interpretation of Bhagawad Gita gave rise to extremist politics.

A Case of Hyderabad state:

Hyderabad state too had its own peculiarities. The rule of the last Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan, turned communal by the early 1930s besides being a feudal autocratic state from the beginning, which did not permit any political mobilization in the state. Therefore the movement for political awakening of the masses wore the mask of a cultural movement. The resentment against the Nizam’s rule could not apparently surface till the founding of the Andhra Jana Sangha in early 1920s as a self respect movement of the Telugu speaking people in the state. The Library movement which was started in the wake of 20^th century received a fillip with this language movement. Andhra Maha Sabha emerged by 1930s taking a clear political stand by passing resolutions for economic demands under a cultural garb. But it was termed as an annual fair. The Arya Samaj also started its activities on the religious front but it received a serious threat from the communal nature of the state. Therefore, it could not make rapid strides in the mobilization of people. Moreover, the Suddhi movement undertaken by it took the communal overtones and nvited the wrath of the Ittehad ul Muslimeen, which in course of time built a militant Razakar contingent. The Razakars had grown into an extra constitutional authority in the state enjoying the state patronage. The Nizam’s government was zealously guarding the state from the influence of the national movement that is taking a definite shape in the British India. Under these circumstances, Swami Ramananda Tirtha, a sanyasi, took the reins of Hyderabad State Congress, a banned political organization even before it was born formally.

The Role of Swami Ramananda Tirtha:

Swami Ramananda Tirtha, before he took to sanyasa was known as Venkatesh bhava Rajo Khedgikar, was born on 3^rd October 1903 into a lower middle class Brahmin family in Chinnamalli Jagir of Sindigi village in Gulbarga district (which is now in Karnataka state). His father, Bhavu Rao, was leading almost an ascetic life and the responsibility of maintaing the family fell on his mother, Yashu Bai. Under the influence of his father, he also developed a taste to ascetic way of life. He was engaged in philosophical discussions and yogic practices from a very tender age. He was meeting Sadhus and learning yoga and penance. He was in High School at Sholapur when he joined the Non-cooperation Movement in response to Gandhiji’s call. After the Movement was withdrawn, he resumed his studies and did his B.A. from Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapith, Poona. He wrote a thesis on ‘The Evolution of Democracy’ for his M.A. Thus, he equipped himself with the modern western education and acquired thorough knowledge of Western Political Thought. During his College days in Poona, he was attracted towards Bala Gangadhar Tilak and his Home Rule Movement. Mourning the sad demise of Tilak on 1 August 1920, he pledged to himself, “From this moment onward, I shall dedicate myself to the service of the mother land. I shall go the way of renunciation and shall be a life long Brahmachari”. He stood by his pledge steadfastly until he passed away on 22 January 1972. For sometime, he was also attracted to trade union movement inspired by his paternal uncle, R.A. Khedgikar, who was his guardian since his boyhood. He also worked under N. M. Joshi, the Father of Trade Union Movement in India, when the workers were facing miserable effects of Economic Depression in the late 1920s as a result of the First World War. But his sudden ill health brought him out of the Trade Union activities. Later, he opened a school on Gurukul type and continued to run it till he took informal sanyasa on 14 January 1930 and felt that his life’s ambition was fulfilled. He accepted the Nature as his Guru. A Sanyasi, who did not reveal his name to him, left great impression on his mind. He was formally initiated on 14 January 1932 into sanyasa,(known as vidwath sanyasa) by Swami Narayana, a karma yogi stationed at Lucknow, who was a direct disciple of Swami Rama. He entered into active political mobilization while working for Arya Samaj and Maratha and Kannada Parishads. He came to limelight with the Hyderabad Educational Conferences particularly the Second Educational Conference which he himself organised in 1937-38 at Latur in Aurangabad District. He joined the political struggle with the founding of Hyderabad State Congress in 1938 and remained its President through out the freedom struggle in Hyderabad. Being himself a sanyasi, he even advocated use of violence as a strategy to be adopted by the Congress to fight the Razakars. After independence, he did not aspire for any berth in the government and withdrew voluntarily from power politics though he served two terms as Member of Parliament from 1952 to 1962 and took up constructive programmes to uplift the downtrodden.

Observation:

The case of Swami Ramananda Tirtha is a role model depicting spiritual foundations of Indian Nationalism. Spirituality did not shun its responsibility to meet the demands of the time and the spiritualists favourably responded to the call of the land and its people. After they found that their role was no more necessary, they voluntarily withdrew themselves from active politics. The Karma Yoga of Bhagavad Gita inspired many such sanyaasis to join the mainstream struggle with a sense of detachment. Those, who renunciated the world for themselves, took active roles in the struggle. The nature of the freedom struggle unlike individual political intervention of ancient and medieval sages at the hour of need drew more such individuals to lead the long drawn popular movement against the foreign rule.

References:

Kishan Rao, V Swami Ramananda Tirtha and the Hyderabad

Freedom Struggle, Shri Sai Publishrs, Warangal, 1988

Tirtha, Swami Ramanada Memoirs of Hyderabad Freedom Struggle,

Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1967

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[*] Professor of History, Kakatiya University, Warangal (506 009) e-mail : y_bharadwaj@hotmail.com

The author owes his understanding of the ancient Indian cultural and spiritual ethos to Sadguru Sri Sivanada Murty, Bheemunipatnam, A.P. However, he owns the entire responsibility for all his shortcomings in understanding and expression.

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Buddhism and Modern society

National Seminar on

‘Buddhism & Modern Society’

On behalf of the Department of History & Tourism Management and on my personal behalf, it gives me immense pleasure to extend you all a hearty welcome to this National Seminar on “Buddhism and Modern Society” (Relevance, Problems and Perspectives). This seminar is organised by us with the major financial support of the Indian Council of Historical Research, Govt of India, the UG.C Unit of Kakatiya University and the Dept of Culture, Govt of Andhra Pradesh.

The dynamics of Indian culture and civilisation based on the seemingly opposite principles of ‘continuity and change’ drew the attention of the modern scholars both foreign and native to undertake serious research on many of its aspects since the past two centuries. The pre-independence scholars were classified as imperial and nationalistic, whereas the post independence scholars subscribing to many sectional interests are divided into numerous groups. Different interpretations from the perspectives of Marxist, Subaltern, Dalit, Gender etc., have come to light on the already established facts making the issues more complicated and controversial than before. Indian culture has accommodated the rise of many religions since ancient past from time to time. Of all these ancient religions of India, Jainism and Buddhism took the shape of formal religions by the beginning of the first millennium A.D. conforming to the principles of modern religion. Buddhism became more popular soon because of many favourable factors. The foremost of these factors could be obviously ascribed to the nature of the path shown by the Buddha which is known as the Middle Path i.e., a path which was easily understood and followed by one and all without any exclusive rights or privileges for any community or individual based on his/her birth. Buddhism was not only popular in India, it rose to the status of an international religion adopted by neighboring countries and the countries of South-east Asia, Central Asia etc.

Buddhism had influenced every aspect of human life like Art, Literature, architecture in these countries besides their respective religions. Buddhism which stood steadfastly for Dhamma has a universal appeal and its strict moral codes are relevant to all times. But Buddhism lost its vigour and vitality by seventh and eighth centuries A.D. on account of many historical reasons. As a natural process, the Buddhism spread with by branching off like Hinayaana, Mahayaana, Vajrayaana. In India, it is finally absorbed by the dominant Hindu religion. However, Buddhism continue to live in the essence of later Indian religions which came up in India like medieval Saivism and Vaishnavism and the Bhakti philosophy. The spread of Islam in other parts of Asia has wiped out Buddhism which preached Non-Violence and Peaceful Co-existence for attaining Nirvaana. Buddhism could not withstand militant Islam in those regions. The spread of Christianity supported by imperialist powers in the modern times also became a major threat for the existence of Buddhism which is basically a simple atheistic religion.

The modern times are witnessing unforeseen challenges to the peaceful co-existence of various communities besides the individual freedom to pursue one’s own path of salvation. Materialism and Consumerism have reached an all time high mark in its negative countenance blowing away all the niceties of our so far well guarded cultural and religious values. It is time that the intellectuals professing various schools of philosophy to interact with another and address the issues relating to the values like tolerance, mutual respect, love, spirit of sacrifice and understanding to promote human dignity, righteousness and justice.

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Education System- Indian Perspective

Education System – Indian Perspective

Y.Sudershan Rao

Prof of History

Kakatiya University

Warangal

506009

Indian Culture is based on the Veda. The Veda is, in turn, based on Dharma. Therefore, Dharma is preserved in the Veda and practised in Indian Culture. The main objective of Indian Education System (IES) is to guide the people to tread on the path of Dharma. Its purpose is to make them humane and responsive to the demands of their mother land and society to which they are indebted immensely for their living. Its philosophy is to enlighten them regarding the final goal to be reached by every individual. Thus IES humanizes man who is otherwise a greedily selfish and brutally undisciplined being and further elevates him to divinity also if pursued seriously under the guidance of an accomplished Guru. Other Systems, particularly those of the West, have mundane objectives and impart training in eking out a livelihood. Western System was implanted in India in the early decades of the nineteenth century by the colonial masters. But it soon spread like a wild fire being sponsored by the Christian Missionaries with the outright support of the British Government. Since IES had already lost the official patronage during the Muslim rule in India for over 7 centuries by then, it could no longer stand on its own against the strong tides of Westernism in all walks of life. In a short span of a half century, IES was totally replaced by the Western System. IES has suffered such a serious set back that it is found very difficult to revive it even in a small way during the post-independence period. The English educated Indian intellectuals adopting western political philosophies as their creeds have become a stumbling block for any efforts of revival of IES to safeguard their vested interests.

Our time-tested IES not only disciplines young minds to think and act properly but also equips them with both worldly and other worldly knowledge. The disciple and his master do not depend on external aids to store and retrieve required information. Before opting for a specialized branch of knowledge, the disciple is educated in a comprehensive manner. Every Sastra or Purana is encyclopedic in nature and contents. Therefore, once he comes out of a Gurukula, he is a real master of knowledge. He is totally transformed from a disciple to an accomplished Guru. Guru doesn’t pass him out unless he scores cent per cent unlike the present system. The disciple should not only satisfy his master with his scholarship, he should win laurels in the Panditha sabhas at important centers of learning. His success in the external centers would graduate him in real sense. IES is such a perfect mechanism that the products do not suffer any manufactural defects. The typology of IES could be understood from the composition of the Veda. The Veda has four levels of study, viz. Samhitha consisting of basic contents, Brahmana practical manual of rituals, Aranyaka delving into its meaning and purpose and the Upanishad imparting the final wisdom. Thus the aim of IES is to reach perfection in respect of information, its practice, philosophy and wisdom. Unfortunately the present system is too far from these noble objectives. It is time to rethink and formulate a workable system integrating both the modern techniques of learning and the ancient noble ideals of education.

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Aryan Culture, Grand Pyramid of

The Grand Pyramid of Aryan Culture

Y.Sudershan Rao*

Prof. of History

Kakatiya University

Warangal

(506 009)

The pyramidal structures are found from all pockets of ancient civilizations fairly spread throughout the world. The holy shrines of Ziggurats of Central Asia, the Pyramids (memorial tombs of the dead) of Egypt, the shrines dedicated to Sun-god of the ancient Mexican civilizations which continued till as late as the coming of the Europeans, the Buddhist structure depicting the ‘ascent of the man’ at Borobudur of Indonesia and the replica of Mount Kailas (Maha Meru) which is commonly worshipped in the Hindu households as a symbol of Sri Mahalaxmi and the architecture of Hindu temples are enough examples to establish the commonness of the pyramidal shape for the holy shrines or objects of worship throughout the world since times immemorial. Irrespective of the difference in the meaning, purpose and ritualistic practices followed by various religious creeds, the philosophical basis of the pyramidal shape of these structures or symbols of worship could be understood hypothetically from the moorings of Aryan Culture.

These pyramidal structures symbolically represent the Brahmaanda, which comprises of fourteen Lokaas facilitating the ascent of jiva. The Brahmaanda Puraana offers clear description of the structure of our Brahmaanda. The architectural styles of these structures at various places might differ from each other. Some are cubical at the basement and conical or cylindrical or pyramidal at the top. Some are pointed to sky and some leave a reduced square platform open to sky denoting that the soul absorbs itself into the Nirguna tattva (state of the Unqualified Brahman). Some have straight vertical staircases and some have spiral staircases to reach the top platform. The earliest (The Ziggurats of 4^th millennium BC) have four platforms facilitating circumambulations at different heights (elevations) with straight vertical staircases on all sides while the later structures at other places vary in number of platforms (parikrama), for example Borobudur structure has seven platforms with vertical stair cases on all sides leading to the top. The basement of Borobudur is said to denote the seven Lokaas or material planes as our tradition says that there are seven Lokaas below the earthly physical plane and seven above it including itself. Earth being in the middle of the fourteen Lokaas is considered the pathway to the non-material planes of upper worlds. The architecture of later Hindu temples is pyramidal or conical in structure pointing to sky. They do not have platforms connected with staircases to reach to the top or Sikhara. But the Hindu tradition gives much importance to circumambulating a temple with oordhva drishti concentrating on its Sikhara. Sikhara darshan of a temple is considered more than sufficient even if one could not have the darshan of the deity inside the Garbhagriha (for example, Balaji temple in Tirumala and Sri Mallikarjuna temple in Srisailam). In spiritual practices also, a saadhak is supposed to raise his consciousness through the six Chakraas from Mulaadhaara to reach finally the seventh, i.e., Sahasraara. Since the temple tradition is still intact and alive in India since the remotest past and all other popular religions of the modern world have only congregation halls or open yards as the case may be for conducting the community prayers, not subscribing to the theory of evolution of man and transmigration of soul, the Hindu philosophy based on ancient Bharateeya literature and in turn the Vedic knowledge might help us in understanding the social and spiritual philosophy of these symbolic pyramidal structures which were very popular in the ancient civilised world.

Aryan Culture defies the modern definitions of ‘culture’ which state that the ‘culture’ is evolved in course of time and that it relates to a community or an ethnic race or people living in a well-defined geographical region or a nationality or a religious creed. Instead, Aryan Culture transcends all such descriptions and attempts to discipline the social conduct, personal character and moral psyche of a man. The epicenter of this great Culture is located in the region south of Mount Kailas and extended to the Sarasvati-Sindhu-Ganga plains popularly known as Aryaavarta according to our Puraanic literature. Further the Puraanaas say that the Aryan Culture is not an evolved one but it is handed down to the humanity by the Brahma-maanasa-putraas. The Aryan Culture is based on the Eternal Dharma, which is revealed through the Veda. The Rishis who enlivened this great Culture through their exemplary lives had revealed the secrets of this Creation and the meaning and purpose of human life according to which the ultimate goal of a man is to getting himself liberated from the cycle of births and deaths and finally absorb himself in the Brahman. Aryan Culture provides various spiritual paths, which are proved to have been successful in taking an ardent follower to arrive at the avowed destination. Each individual enjoys virtual freedom to choose his spiritual path among the numerous ways proposed by the Aryan Culture depending on his capability and interest. The one who realises that the aim and sole objective of his life is to attain the ultimate state of Brahmam and pursues a spiritual path of his choice or follows the path prescribed by his spiritual master while leading the life based on the Eternal Dharma as enunciated in Aryan Culture is addressed with the honorific epithet of ‘Arya’ in ancient Bharateeya literature.

Though an individual enjoys complete freedom in his choice of a spiritual path, he is bound by several dharmic injunctions in matters of his interaction with his family, society and community. A number of Smritis and Sastraas based on Sritis have come into being in course of time to satisfy the changing needs of the society. As the main objective of Aryan Culture is to make man realise his goal and put him in an appropriate path to reach it, a comprehensive and evolutionary model is proposed for the life of an Aryan which is symbolically shown in the ancient pyramidal structures.

The four sides elevating to top in four phases represent four facets of Aryan living, viz., A) Varna, B) Ashrama, C) Veda and D) Purushaartha each prescribing four grades of evolution to be achieved by practice as shown in the following model which could be considered as the basis of the ancient pyramidal structures.

A B C D

QUALITY STAGE KNOWLEDGE & OBJECTIVES

OF LIFE PRACTICE

Brahmin Sanyaasa Upanishad Moksha

Kshatriya Vanaprastha Aaranyaka Kaama

Vysya Grihastha Braahmana Artha

Sudra Brahmacharya Samhita Dharma

VARNA ASHRAMA VEDA PURUSHAARTHA

Aryan Culture addresses an individual to become Aryan rather than attempting to the stratification of society on the bases of birth, colour, creed, gender, age, race, language, profession or occupation, geographical region etc. The transformation of Varna system into Caste system by the Saastra period and into Casteism in the recent historical period and the discrimination of one against the other on the basis of birth has been periodically condemned by the social and religious reformers in our country at least from the days of epics. The Aryan Culture declares that every one is a Sudra by birth and through various Samskaaraas he achieves Brahmanhood not necessarily in different lives permitting interchange or downward or upward mobility in Varna in one life and that every creature is eligible to get Moksha. Puranaas give several examples of non-human creatures like spider, elephant, and serpent merging into Lord Siva. Bhagavatha Puraana also gives several examples of evil-minded and egocentric Raakshasaas getting merged in Lord Vishnu. The God also had taken non-human and partially human forms for His incarnations. Thus any creature with one of the nine kinds of Bhakti if pursued sincerely in word, deed and thought, is certain to achieve its ultimate Goal in the same life. Even Dharma or religion or social obligations or family duties can not hinder an individual’s progress in his chosen path of Liberation with singular devotion to God as decreed by Lord Krishna in the Gita. But all such cases are exceptional, which can not be applied commonly to every one. It is only suffice to know that the Liberation is not the forte of only those who are blessed with great qualities or capabilities or scholarship or serious spiritual mindedness or pure religious and social conduct. However, Aryan Culture also cautions that jumping the krama-mukti maarga might land any body into serious troubles. Therefore, Aryan Culture has handed down to humanity a steady and sure path to the Liberation, no matter how long it takes one to reach his Goal following the path of Dharma and also enjoying the beauty of life simultaneously.

As a tradition, the Aryan Culture suggests a gradual evolutionary path for an individual.

· Every human being is a Sudra by birth and the term denotes the preparedness of an individual to serve the society with dignity of labor. He begins his life adopting Brahmacharya to learn Scriptural knowledge for understanding the Dharma, the first Purushartha by serving his master. This stage forms the concrete basis of ones life before he actually sets his career in motion.

· In the second stage, he adopts the qualities of Vysya to engage himself in remunerative pursuits like agriculture, business, employment, trade, art etc according to the injunctions of Dharma by entering family life as Grihastha to discharge his duties to his family, society and his country and practicing his scriptural knowledge as enunciated in the Braahmana thus fulfilling his material objective, i.e., Artha, the second Purushaartha.

· In the third stage, he exhibits exemplary bravery, the quality of a Kshatriya, to leave the comforts of life to live in forest ( such high quality was exhibited by Mahavira, the Jina, the Conqueror of Desires, and Gautama, the Buddha, the Enlightened One in respect of the implications of Desire, in historical times), and to acquire the inner meaning of the Braahminic rituals through the Aaranyaka enabling him to win his sensual yearnings, Kama, the Desire, to reach the level of contentment with regard to the worldly life. On the other hand, this stage consolidates his efforts to strongly desire for desirelessness only.

· The fourth and final stage makes him a real Brahmin whose only desire is to merge in Brahmam by taking to Sanyaasa and sitting close to the realised Masters to quench his thirst for the philosophical understanding of the Tattva, the Upanishad, as he waits for the Moksha, the last Purushaartha.

Thus the essence of Aryan Culture is to prepare an individual to attain the four Purushaarthaas, one after the other, through the four stages of his life with the Veda holding the torch and the Varna providing appropriate qualities at each stage. The Aryan Culture basically addresses the individual and through him the society at large. The present Hindu temples or the ancient pyramidal structures irrespective of the religions they profess are designed to exhibit the conduct and philosophy of life of a human being in a symbolic manner. These structures provide necessary motivation, inspiration and guidance to the seekers of Truth if they could firmly establish the graphic presentation of this picture on their mental plane.

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* The author expresses his deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to Sathguru Sri Sivananda Murty garu of Bheemunipatnam, AP for his understanding of Aryan Culture.

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A Report on the Fourth International Vedic Workshop on

Vedas in Culture and History

South Asia Institute, University of Texas, Austin

(24-27 May 2007)

While I was browsing through various websites of South Asia Centers for a glance at their academic programs, providentially I came across the news that the South Asia Institute (SAI) of the College of Liberal Arts, University of Texas (UT) is organizing the Fourth International Vedic Workshop on Vedas in Culture and History from 24-27 May 2007 on their Austin Campus at MEZES Hall Auditorium. Prof Patrick Olivelle, Chair, Department of Asian Studies and Prof Joel Brereton, Chair Designate are the team leaders for conducting the Program. I thought it a great opportunity for me to acquaint myself with the status of research on Vedic studies in the International Centers in general and the US Centers in particular as I got to know through the list of participants (65) that the Conference was well represented by important centers from various parts of the world. About 50 presentations are listed in the final program. Just a week ahead of the Program, I made a request to the Chair to permit me to take part in the Workshop which was very promptly and favorably responded to by Prof Joel Brereton. He had also kindly waived the normal registration fee for me. I gratefully acknowledge the gesture. And, but for Dr Lalith and Sushama, my attendance in the Workshop was not possible.

International Vedic Workshop (IVW) was first held in Harvard University (USA) way back in June 1989. The second conference was held in Japan at Kyoto University (30 Oct- 2 Nov 1999) and the third at Leiden (Netherlands) 30 May-2 June, 2002.

Inaugural on 24 May: Without much fanfare, the Workshop was called to order by Prof Joel Brereton at sharp 9 in the morning. Prof Olivelle welcomed the august gathering and Prof Randy Diehl, the Dean of the College of Liberal Arts declared the Workshop open with a brief message. All this was over in 15 minutes and then followed the key-note address of Prof Ludo Rocher, (University of Pennsylvania), who was introduced as ‘guru of gurus’ by the Chair. Prof. Rocher spoke on the life and contribution of H.T. Colebrooke to the Vedic studies in the late 18^th century. Colebrooke came to India in 1783 and served the EIC for thirty years. He was attracted to Sanskrit language and literature. He presented a paper to the Asiatic Society of Bengal on Sati. Between 1798 and 1801 he wrote two more articles and translated Sulabsutras into English. Colebrooke gratefully acknowledged the assistance and guidance extended to him in his work by certain liberal minded brahmin pandits. Thus, he heralded studies in Indology. Prof Rocher opines that the early European writings on India focused on the ancient Indian knowledge without much of a bias.

Synopses and comments on select papers:

Georges-Jean Pinault , (Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, France) in his paper, About the Concept of ‘Holiness’ in the Vedic Hymns, refers to a feminine noun, dhisana which seems to designate vaguely a supernatural force, being sometimes personified as a beneficial goddess. He tried to show that dhisana is an abstraction based on a noun referring to the ‘sacred place’ or ‘sacred sphere’. He points out that demons or hostile creatures in the Atharvaveda ……. could be explained by the ambivalent nature of something sacred, understood also as dangerous and terrible for ordinary human beings.

Frank Kohler, (University of Tubingen, Germany): Some Thoughts on the World View of Dirghatamas. Dirghatamas is conceived as the embodiment of mystery and one of the most reflective poets of the Rigveda.

But when he was questioned why Dirghatamas got this name and what its meaning was, he said ‘I don’t know. I am not sure’!

Victoria Yareham, (The University of Queensland, Australia) :The Plurality of Usas in the Rigveda. She tries to explain that 30% references of Usas in Rigveda were in plural form and concludes that there might be many dawns as a group of deities.

Indian scholar from Tirupati clarifies that the Usas is singular as a phenomenon and plural in its expressions and functions. There can’t be many deities as she thinks.

Stanley Insler (Yale University) : Visvarupa, asuranam svasriyah: He identifies Visvarupa as asura killed by Indra.

Konrad Klaus (University of Bonn, Germany) : Toward a new Vedic Index of Names and Subjects: He says that he has started a major project to prepare an Index and appeals to the scholars to associate with him in this work.

Tamara Ditrich (The University of Queensland, Australia) : Historical Development and Typology of dvandva compounds in the Rigveda: The paper concludes that the dvandvas could not be viewed as a single category.

As Ramalakshmana or matapitarou are two separate individuals, Indragni also denotes two !

Joel Brereton (University of Texas) : The Funeral Hymn of Brihadukhta : He argues that the Vajin mentioned in the funeral hymn is a horse though metaphorical horse, and it is not the deceased for which the hymn was composed.

I told him that these hymns should be interpreted from the Yogic point of view rather than as simple funeral hymns because the hymns he quoted mention about three ‘lights’ finally merging into One. He received this suggestion positively.

Jarrod L.Whitaker (Wake Forest University) Indrahood (indriya) and the Human Indra:

He spoke eloquently on the masculine (womanizing) and physical and martial capabilities of Indra as the most powerful one terrorizing his enemies. Indra was feared for his brutal power and violent actions. He further says that this perhaps indicate how the Aryan culture spread through out Indian sub-continent.

I stood up and said that Indra was never considered a human and much less as a king by any historian, east or west, and that the Aryanisation of the subcontinent was not done through violent means. There is no historical evidence to make such sweeping generalizations. I finally said, “Such studies will not help either the researcher or the Veda or the society at large.” Then he said, “I did not mean it but I apologize if I have hurt your feelings”. Prof Michael Witzel (Harvard University) was in the chair and he did not allow further discussion on the subject for want of time.

Ramachandra G Bhat (Svyasa University) : A New Revelation of the Vedic Hymns:

He speaks about Maharshi Daivarata of Gokarna, who composed 448 mantras while he was in Rmanamaharshi Ashram. His own preceptor Vasishthaganapathimuni tolk down those mantras and wrote a commentary on them named Anvayabhasyam.

He gives a modern and recent example of how Veda can reveal itself.

Madayo Kohle (Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain): The Passage through Fire: He states Agni has two functions, one burns the body and take him to pitruloka only to come back again and the other to immortality through Yanja as sacrificial fire.

M.G.Dhadphale: (Bhandarkar Oriental research Institute, Pune, India) : Vedic salega. After discussing many alternatives, he finally settles to say that the term salega denotes castration of animals like bulls for use in agriculture or men to serve in the royal houses as there was such a practice among the Kshatriyas of Maharashtra.

Thus a senior scholar representing an age old and prestigious institution also tries to amuse the western audience at the expense of the Veda. He claims that he is sharing a great secret with them after many years of research on the term.

Pramod V Pathak: (Houston): The Vedic god Pusan, Karambha and the Wheels of Pusan:

He tries to interpret that Pusan was worshipped by Aryans when they passed the hunter-gatherer stage and became ploughmen (agriculture). A well known Marxian approach!

Sudha Gopalakrishnan (National Mission for Manuscripts, India) : presents a report on the activities of the Mission and that the Mission is attempting to create a Database of Manuscripts since three years and that they have developed a website for sharing the information. www.namami.org.

Michael Witzel (Harvard University):Some Manuscripts, Some Colophons, Some Conclusions: He states that Atharvaveda is preserved and practiced by some Brahmin families, like Pacoli or five Brahmin families. Thus the Atharvaveda is mostly prevalent in Gujarat. He argues that the Rama and Krishna cults have spread from 16^th century onwards. Dara Shukou, the Mughal Prince had summoned the Vedic Pandits to Agra by an imperial firman to teach him Veda. Sayana did great service to Veda under Vijayanagara rule. Due to political compulsions, the studies were confined to the south because of the royal patronage.

I told him that the south also has contributed much to the Vedic learning and Sanskrit literature from ancient times but because of the Islamic onslaughts, it appears as if it is confined to south. He took the comment positively.

Francois Voegeli (Universite de Lausanne, Switzerland): Hints on the position of Vadhulas among the Vedic Schools of Ritual: He says that Vadhulasakhasutra preceded Anvakhyana and that it is an unfinished work mostly prevalent in Kerala among Nambudris. It disappeared from North.

Timothy Lubin (Washington and Lee University): Formats for the Standardisation of Vedic Domestic Ritual: He makes a distinction between early Vedic Homa rituals where sacrifice is offered to Agni and later worship rituals the offerings are not made to Agni. The offerings are made to deities in image forms but the same mantras are used for these new forms of worship.

I told him that the religious practices have been changing from time to time as per the yuga dharma. But the same Veda mantras are used in the newer forms of worship. Feeding a hungry man also amounts to offering made to Agni as Agni has several forms, like jatharagni. In the later temple worship also Veda mantras are adopted and thus the Veda is a continuous stream though the practices may change. He took the suggestion positively.

Shingo Einoo (University of Tokyo, Japan): Rites for Rain in the Vedic and Post-Vedic Literature: He refers to two hymns in Rigveda and three hymns in Atharvaveda to obtain rain. But he opines that in the later Vedic period, only inauguration ceremonies for water reservoirs are mentioned and the Puranas do not refer to rites for rain. But Buddhist tantric texts such as Amoghapasakalparaja and the Manjusrikalpa give several examples of rites for rain.

He thinks that perhaps Brahmins might have lost interest in the rites for rain!

Boris Oguibenine (Universite Marc Bloch, France) : Crossing the Waters: Buddhist Adaptation of a Vedic Idea: The elements of Vedic tradition survived and absorbed in later Brahminism and Buddhism. In the early Vedic religion, the crossing of water was referring to getting over the obstacles where as in Buddhist speculation it speaks about liberation. Many Vedic metaphors were adopted by the Buddhism.

Shrikant S.Bahulkar (Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, India): Veda and Vedism in Buddhist Tantric Literature: He establishes that Buddhist tantric texts used Vedic terminology, concepts and metaphors though strongly reacted to the authority of Veda. Buddha was interpreted as Brahmacari, Snataka, Brahmavadi, Brahmana, Brahma, Vishnu, Siva etc. Sacrificial terminology like sruva, bhajana, kunda, caru, soma, sura, yajnopavita etc were also used in a different Buddhist tantric sense. But they tried to show the supremacy of Buddha over the Veda and Buddha dharma over the Vedic tradition. Vajrayana and Mahayana had borrowed much from Vedism. Mantras were also formed. OM has the precedence. A mantra has to start with OM and end with SWAHA. Kalachakra tantra gives a number of mantras with OM and Swaha. Homa is considered as inner yajnam in Buddhism meaning meditation. Buddhist tantras consider day activity as external Yajna and the night for internal Yajna.

David B. Gray (Santa Clara University): The Vedas in Tantras: Late Buddhist Reflections on the Vedic Tradition: He states that the Buddhist authors turned to the Vedic tradition to legitimate their own ritual practices. But they constructed alternate myths for the origins of the Vedic tradition. Mostly the Buddhist Tantric texts were written during the early medieval period (7^th -13^th centuries).

General Remarks:

It is indeed a rare opportunity for me to interact with select international Vedic fraternity which could meet only four times in two decades. For the one who has seen the Vedic meets with dhoti-clad traditional Brahmin pandits in native surroundings, it is a bit amusing to find the ‘White’ Brahmins in Western attires in an alien (for me) atmosphere. The way the Sans‘k’ri‘t’(‘k’ and ‘t’ pronounced as in ‘k’i‘t’e) terms are pronounced and the hymns are quoted by this Neo-Brahmin class sounds strange to native ears.

It seems that the Western scholars have yet to come out of the ‘Jones syndrome’ (that is pursuing Vedic research with language and linguistic tools ). Veda is not just a literary work which is the product of a time, nor a historical text giving a chronological account. It is a knowledge store where every sincere seeker gets what he wants –good or bad, which is of course subjective. The concepts, myths, metaphors and terms are coded and couched in hard shells defying all modern tools to decipher them. Every one’s attempt to understand a Vedic phenomenon is, thus, independent. The expressions of the experiences of such seekers also differ. The Western studies seem to be mostly obsessed with base human instincts like cruelty, sex, aggrandizement and the like. Even the divine forces are not spared from such frivolities being equated with lesser humans.

However, growing interest in Vedic studies is a welcome trend. Whatever be the motives or methods or approaches of those who take to Vedic studies, our tradition says that the touch of Veda itself does miracles for the pursuers. Sadguru Dr Sivananda Murty (Bheemunipatnam, A.P., India) says that a Vedic mantra irrespective of the understanding of its meaning by the reciter, carries him to a destination already ‘seen’ by the mantradrasta. Therefore let us hope that all ends well for one and all.

Sarve janah sujano bhavantu

Sarves sujanah sukhino bhavantu,

Y.Sudershan Rao, M.A.,Ph.D.

Professor of History (Rtd)

Kakatiya University, Warangal,

(506009), A.P. India

On a visit to USA:

9825, Rodeo Dr, Irving, TX (75063)

Ph 972 831 9696

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