Historical Geography of Ancient India
(For The ‘Hall of Time’ Digest) Published in 'Supatha', Feb 2014.
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Title of the
Book: Ancient Geography of India
Name of the
Author: Major General Sir Alexander Cunningham (A.
Cunningham)
Publication:
(First Published in 1871)
Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 2007
Pages: 501, Price: Rs 595/-
ISBN: 81-307-0619-9
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Introduction:
Ancient Indian literature –Vedic, Puranic, Itihasic,
Jain, Buddhist, etc—is replete with valuable information regarding this planet Earth,
the Solar System, and the Brahmanda. The Puranas also indicate existence of
numerous similar Brahmandas beyond ours. The knowledge about this Universe is
handed down to us by our great seers of yore. Besides the spiritual pursuits of
the seers who ‘received’ the knowledge, common man’s geographical exploration
of this planet is also clearly seen from the Itihasas, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, which we may call ‘evolved’ knowledge. These Itihasas also
vouchsafe that the men had the knowledge of higher worlds and that they had live-interaction
with the closer worlds (lokas) –
higher and nether worlds-- like, swarga, yaksa, gandharva, kinnera, naga, patala
etc.
The knowledge of these Bharateeya Itihasas was widely spread throughout
the world including Americas as claimed by some archaeologists. India had a brisk trade with as far as Italy
in the West, Africa, Arabia and South-East Asia in the proto-historic period
dating back to at least 5000 years from now. China and India, being close
neighbors, were engaged in regular trade and commerce since centuries before
Christ. Buddhist sources tell us that the Indian traders were having trade
connections with far off lands braving the high seas. Indian coast was blessed
with many natural sea-ports. India was well known for its ship-building
industry till as late as 15th century when Vasco de Gama reached
Indian Coast, Calicut, by circumnavigating the Cape of Good Hope[ii].
India had been the most sought after country by the foreigners for its
richness in knowledge, culture and wealth. Perhaps, that proved to be more a
bane than a boon when we look to our past recorded history from about 3rd
century BC. Alexander’s invasion had stimulated the Greeks’ geographical
exploration[iii]. The earlier trade
connections facilitated the study of Indian geography by the Greeks and later the
Arabs[iv]. Patrokles who was the satrap of north-east Syria collected
information regarding India and the Eastern Provinces. Thales, Pythagoras,
Strabo, Eratosthenes, Amyntas, Megasthenes and several others explored India. Pliny and Ptolemy (first and second century
AD) dealt the Geography of India. Periplus
of Erithrean Sea by an anonymous writer of the first century AD contains
the best account of commerce between Red Sea and India. Among Arabs in the
middle ages, mention may be made of Ibn Hardazabah who wrote the first book of
Islamic geography, Abu al-Faraj Kudamat Ibn Jafar writer of ‘Al-Haraj’, al
Masudi, and several other Arabs who were interested in geographical studies.
After Company’s rule was well established in India, British officers took
interest in the ancient Indian geography commenting and interpreting classical
literature, both indigenous and foreign, from the latter half of 18th
century. M. D’Anville (1753-75), Rennel (1783-93), Mannert (1797), Dr Vincent
who translated the Periplus, showed
interest in this field. Col. Francis Wilford will be remembered for his first
serious attempt to study the ancient geography of India collecting material from Indian sources. M Viven de
Saint-Martin treated in a masterly manner the Vedic, the classical and the
Chinese sources of ancient geography of India and Central Asia. Among those
Indologists who worked on the ancient geography of India, Sir Alexander
Cunningham, deserves a special mention. His Ancient
Geography of India has become a standard treatise on the subject. An
attempt is made herein to give a brief review of this monumental work on Indian
Geography.
About
the Author:
Sir Alexander Cunningham, (1814-
1893), British army officer (Engineering Corps) turned archaeologist had excavated many sites
in India, including Sārnāth and Sānchi, and served as the first Director of the
Indian Archaeological Survey.
At 19, he joined the Bengal Engineers and
spent 28 years in the British military service in India, retiring as Major General
in 1861. Early in his career he met James Prinsep, a British numismatist, who ‘ignited’
his interest in Indian history and coins. In 1837 Cunningham excavated at
Sārnāth, outside Vārānasi (Banaras), one of the most sacred Buddhist shrines,
and carefully prepared drawings of the sculptures. In 1850 he excavated Sānchi,
site of some of the oldest surviving buildings in India. In addition to a study
of the temple architecture of Kāshmir (1848) and a work on Ladākh (1854), he
published The
Bhilsa Topes (1854), the
first serious attempt to trace Buddhist history through its architectural
remains.
After his retirement in 1861 from military
service, he submitted a Memorandum to Lord Canning, the Governor General of India, in which he
outlined the object of the organization of Archaeological Survey of India. He
wrote, "It would rebound equally to the honour of the British Government
to institute a careful and systematic investigation of all existing monuments
of India." [v] Later, he agreed
to become the Director of the Indian Archaeological Survey and remained with it
until it was dissolved (1865). Cunningham's duties were defined, in a
Resolution, “to superintend a complete search over the whole country and
prepare a systematic record and description
of all archaeological and other remains that are unique for
their antiquity, historical interest or beauty.” Exploration and excavations
were the primary functions of the Department between 1861-1885. Cunningham
toured almost the entire length and breadth of North India up to Narmada river.
He submitted detailed findings about a large number of monuments and historical
sites.[vi]
He resumed
his post when the Archaeological Survey Department was restored (1870) and
during the next 15 years carried out many archaeological explorations among the
ruins of northern India. He published The
Ancient Geography of India (1871),
the first collection of the edicts of Emperor Aśoka of 3rd-century-bc and The Stûpa of Barhut (1879). Over the years he gathered a
large collection of Indian coins, the choicest of which were purchased by the
British Museum. After his retirement from the survey (1885), he devoted himself
to Indian numismatics and wrote two books on the subject.[vii] He was knighted in 1887.[viii]
The work
done by Cunningham received a greater fillip during the Viceroyalty of Lord
Curzon (1899-1905). His interest in Archaeology resulted in the passing of the
Ancient Monuments Preservations Act in 1904. In his address to the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, he observed: "We have a duty to our forerunners, as
well as to our contemporaries and to our descendants, nay, our duty to the two
latter classes in itself demands the recognition of an obligation to the
former, since we are the custodians for our own age of that which has been
bequeathed to us by an earlier, and since posterity will rightly blame us if,
owing to our neglect they fail to reap the same advantages that we have been
privileged to enjoy".[ix]
Cunningham was succeeded by Sir John Marshall who also did yeoman service for
the promotion of archaeology in India.
About the
Book:
The book, Ancient Geography of India (AGI), covers
the Buddhist period including the campaigns of Alexander and the travels of
Hwen-Thsang (Yuan Chwang). The book
describes the geography of – Afghanistan, Kashmir and Panjab of Northern India;
Sind, Gurjara and Vallabhi (Balabhi) of Western India; Gangetic plains starting
from Sthaneswara to Magadha including Malwa and Ujjain of Central India:
Kamarupa to Ganjam of Eastern India; and from Kalinga to Maharashtra including
Andhra, Dravida and Konkan of Sothern India. Ceylon is also included. Separate
notes on (A) Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang’s Travels, (B) Measures of
Distances, Yojana, Li, Krosa and (C)
Correction of Error in Ptolemy’s Eastern Longitudes are appended. Further, the
book contains thirteen valuable maps of ancient India showing the locations of
ancient sites, villages and towns. The author dedicated this work “to Major
General Sir H C Rawlison, K. C. B. who has himself done so much to throw light
on the Ancient Geography of Asia”.
Cunningham says, “I have not undertaken this work without
much previous preparation”. His travels “ have been very extensive throughout
the length and breadth of northern India, from Peshawar and Multan near the
Indus, to Rangoon and Prome on the Irawadi, and the Kashmir and Ladakh to the
mouth of the Indus and the banks of Narbada” during his long service of three
decades in India. When he was employed as Archaeological Surveyor after his
retirement from the military service, he studied ancient Indian geography and
he was “signally successful in fixing the sites of many of the most famous
cities of ancient India”. A few of the most prominent of his discoveries are : Aornos, Taxila, Sngola,Srughna,Ahichhatra,
Bairat, Sakisa, Sravasti, Kosambi, Padmavati, Vaisali, and Nalanda.[x]
On
the lines of the colonial periodisation of
Indian history, he periodised the geography of India as the Brahminical, the Buddhist, and the Muhammadan on
the basis of ‘prevailing religious and political character of the period it
embraces’. Brahminical period “would
trace the gradual extension of the Aryan race over Northern India”. The Buddhist period “would embrace the
rise, extension, and decline of the Buddhist faith from the era of Buddha to
the conquests Mahmud of Ghazni”. The Muhammadan
period “would embrace the rise and extension of Muhammadan power from the
time of Mahmud of Ghazni to the battle of Plassey”. M. Vivien de Saint Martin’s
valuable essay[xi]
covers ancient geography as elicited from the Hymns of the Vedas. H H Wilson in
his Ariana Antiqua and Lassen, in his
Pentapotamia Indica, refer to the
ancient geography of North-west India. M. Stanislas Julien’s translation of the
Life and Travels of the Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, helps identifying most of
the ancient Buddhist sites. But exact locations were not pinpointed. Similarly,
Muhammadan period gives us ample material from their numerous histories of the
Muhammadan States of India but no authoritative work was attempted.
Cunningham
chose the Buddhist period for his work “to
determine with absolute certainty the sites of many of the most important
places in India”.[xii]
His ‘chief guides’ were Alexander and Hwen Thsang. Alexander “caused the whole
country to be described by men well acquainted with it”.[xiii] Patrokles who held the east satrapies of the
Syrian empire under Seleukas Nikator had further improved this information.
These accounts were confirmed by Megasthenes who had actually visited
Pataliputra. Giving a rapid survey of
Hwen Thsang’s travels in India[xiv],
Cunnigham emphatically said that the Chinese pilgrim was not surpassed by any
one in his extensive travels in India. He felt, “the pilgrimages of this
Chinese priest forms an epoch of as much interest and importance for the
Ancient History and Geography of India, as the expedition of Alexander the
Great”. He also found Ptolemy’s account (150 AD) more valuable for constructing ancient
geography of India as “it belongs to a period just midway between the date of
Alexander’s campaign (330 BC) and the travels of Hwen Thsang (630 AD).
The
Subject Matter:
The close
agreement of the dimensions, given by the Indian informants to the Greeks, with
the actual size of the country was so accurate that Cunningham was greatly
surprised that “the Indians, even at their early date in their history, had a
very accurate knowledge of the form and extent of their native land.”[xv]
Form
and Extent of India:
Erotosthenes
and other Greek writers[xvi]
described India as a rhomboid, or
unequal quadrilateral, in shape, with the Indus on the west, the mountains on
the north, and the sea on the south and he west. The shortest side was on the
west with 13000 stadia or 1493 British miles.[xvii]
The length of the country from the west to east (i.e. Indus to the mouth of
Ganges) is 16000 stadia or 1838 British miles. The eastern coast from the mouth
of Ganges to the Cape of Comorin was reckoned at 16000 stadia or 1838 British
miles and the southern coast from Cape of Comorin to the mouth of the Indus was
19000 stadia or 2183 British miles. Megasthenes estimated the distance from
southern sea to the Caucusus at 20,000 stadia or 2298 British miles while the
modern count from Cape of Comorin to the Hindu Kush is about 1950 miles
according to Elphinston[xviii]
but when converted into road distance it counts at 2275 miles. Diodorus says,
“the whole extent of India from east to west is 28000 stadia and from north to
south 32000 stadia,” (AGI, p4) and altogether about 60000 stadia or 6890
British miles.
Wilford[xix]
quoting from the epic Mahabharat describes India as an equilateral triangle,
which was divided into four smaller equal triangles. The apex of triangle is
Cape of Comorin and the base is formed by the line of the Himalaya Mountains.
Cunnigham taking clue from this, tried to draw three smaller equilateral
triangles within the larger triangle taking a common base of line from Dwaraka
in Gujarat in the west to Ganjam on the east coast and projecting the apexes to
north-west, north-east and Cape of Comorin in the south and the remaining
territory Gangetic plain form the fourth triangle with Himalayan rage as its
base. These four triangular divisions would form the larger equilateral
triangle of India as described by the epic Mahabharat. Cunningham, however,
presumes the date of composition of the epic in the first century AD. He holds
that the countries immediately to the west of the Indus belonged to the
Indo-Scythians may be included ‘very properly within the actual boundaries of
India’.
Brihat
Samhita describes India as having nine divisions (Nava-Khanda). Kern, in his preface to Brihat Samhita, states that Varahamihira’s chapter on Geography was
‘almost’ on the lines of Parasaratantra which
was much earlier to Brihat Smhita.
This description was followed later by the authors of the Puranas. These nine
divisions are : Panchala (central), Magadha (east), Kalinga (south-east), Avanta (south),
Anarta (south-west), Sindhu-Souvira (west), Harahaura (north-west), Madra (north) and Kouninda (north-east). Cunningham compares this list with the lists
given in the Puranas, and finds that “all the lists are substantially the same”
despite some ‘sundry repetitions and displacements of names, as well as, many
various readings’. Brahmanda and Markandeya Puranas also state the districts in
each of the nine divisions. Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas agree with
Mahabharata in describing five divisons in detail. Perhaps Mahabharata had
taken only five major divisions into consideration to describe India. The nine
divisions were: Kurus and Panchalas (central), Kamarupa (Assam), Pundras, Kalingas and Magadhis (south), Sourastras, Suras, Abhiras, Arbudas, Karushas, Malvas, Souviras, Saindhavas
(west) and Hunas, Salwas, Sahalas,
ramos, Ambashias and Parasthas (north). Wilson, referring to
Vishnu Purana, states that the Hindus “likened their native country to the
lotus-flower, the middle being Central India, and the eight surrounding petals
being the other divisions”. (AGI, p11)
Chinese sources[xx] of
seventh century AD also mention only five divisions of India called the East,
West, North, South and Central, usually styled as “Five Indies”[xxi].
The same division was adopted by Hwen Thsang in the seventh century. Fah-kai-lih-to, a Chinese work,
describes, “this country in shape is narrow towards the south and broad towards
the north”, and adds that “the people’s faces are the same shape as the
country”. (AGI, p9). Hwen Thsang estimated the circumference of the country to
be 90,000 li or 15,000 miles (six li = one mile) which is too high and
other Chinese sources say it is 30,000 li or 5000 miles which is too small.
Hwen
Thsang notices about eighty kingdoms -- small and large or sovereign and
tributary – in India. In Northern India, the major kingdoms were: Kapisa with its capital at Charikar or
Alexandria ad Caucasum, Kashmir with
its jurisdiction over Panjab, Taxila, and Taki
(Sangala) near Lahore ruling over the whole plains of Multan and Shorkot. The
Western Provinces were ruled by three kings of Sindh, Balabhi and Gurjjara. In Central and Eastern India, from
Sthaneswara to the mouth of Ganges, and from the Himalayan mountains to the
banks of the Narbada (River Narmada) and River Mahanadi, the entire country was
under the rule of Harshavardhan, the king of Kanoj. In the Southern India, the most powerful king was Pulakesin
II of Chalukyan dynasty and other important kingdoms were Maharashtra and Kosala,
Kalinga, Andhra, Konkan and Dhanakataka.
The
Himalayan range extending from north-west to north-east down the Indian archipelago and the sea on other three
sides form fixed natural boundaries. But its extant towards north-west was
changing frequently when powerful kings overstepped the limits. From the time
of Alexander down to a late period, greater part of Afghanistan was considered
part of India. Pliny did not consider the River Indus as India’s western
boundary. Seleukus Niketor gave the region
beyond Indus to Sandrokottus (Chandragupta Maurya) and his grand son
Asoka served as the viceroy there for some time. The north-western region was
endowed with many Buddhist monasteries as witnessed by Hwen Thsang and the
Chinese pilgrim says that the ruler of Kapisa was a Hindu. The eastern
Afghanistan, including the whole of Kabul valley, ‘must have been of Indian
descent, while the religion was pure Buddhism’. Mahmud of Ghazni persecuted
idolaters, both Hindus and Buddhists, and they were driven out of this country,
‘with them the Indian element’. Eastern Ariana which was Hindu and Buddhist
finally disappeared according to Cunningham. (AGI p14).
In
the Chinese arrangement, the middle and the four primary divisions only are
retained. Cunningham adopted the Chinese arrangement as he found it ‘simpler,
and more easily remembered’. The five divisions of India known as “Five Indies”
are:
1.
Northern
India comprising of Panjab, Kashmir, Afghanistan and the
states the west of River Saraswati,
2.
Western
India comprising of Sindh, western Rajputana, Kutch,
Gujarat and a portion on the lower course of River Narbada,
3.
Central
India comprising the Gangetic provinces from Thaneswar to the Delta and
from the Himalayas to the banks of River Narbada,
4.
Eastern
India comprising of Assam, Bengal, ,Delta of the River
Ganges together with Sambhalpur, Orissa and Ganjam, and
5.
Southern
India comprising the whole peninsula from Nasik and the
west and Ganjam in the east to the Cape of Comorin (Kanya Kumari).
Northern India
Northern India
consists of three major regions : I) Kaofu or Afghanistan, II) Kashmir and III)
Taki or Panjab. The provinces of Northern India beyond the Indus where Indian
language and religion were predominant till the rise of Mahmud of Ghazni.
I)
Kaofu or Afghanistan
Afghanistan
extended from Bamian and Kandahar on the west to the Bholan Pass on the south.
This large tract was divided into ten separate states or districts of which
Kapisa was the chief. The tributary states were Kabul and Ghazni in the west,
Lamghan and Jalalabad in the north, Swat and Peshawar in the east and Banu and
Opokien in the south. In the second century BC, the region was known as Kao-fu. Kao-fu was usually identified with Kabul[xxii].
The region would have been divided among Parthians (Kandahar), Indians (Swat,
Peshawar and Banu) and Saca Scythians (Kabul, Ghazni with Lamghan and
Jalalabad).
1. Kapisene or Opian
: According to Hwen Thsang, the state of Kapisene was about 666 miles in
circuit entirely surrounded by mountains; snowy mountains Po-lo-si-na to the north. Po-lo-si-na
corresponds to the Mount Paresh
or Aparasin of the ‘Zend Avesta’.
Pliny states that the ancient capital of Kapisene was C(K)apisa which was
destroyed by Cyrus. Ptolemy places Kapisa two and a half degrees north of Kabura
or Kabul. At the time of Hwen Thsang’s visit the capital was perhaps Opian. He says
it was “distinguished by its huge artificial mounds, from which, at various
times, copious antique treasures have been extracted”. (AGI p18) Pliny situates
Alexandria ‘at the very foot of Caucasus’ which agrees with the position of
Opian. The place was chosen by Alexander on account of its favourable site at
the parting of the three roads leading to Bactria. Another town of C(K)artena
(of Pliny) or Karsana (of Ptolemy) is also situated at the foot of the
Caucusus. It also seems to be in the
immediate vicinity of Alexandria. Cunningham identifies the town with
Begram which means ‘the city’. The decline of the city was caused by the
gradual desertion of the people, consequent on the transfer of the seat of
government to Ghazni after the
conquest of the country by Muhammadans.
Coins of the last Hindu Rajas were found in great number succeeded by the later
Muslim rulers. Cunningham infers ‘that the city began gradually to decay after
the Muhammadan conquest of Kabul by Sabuktugin towards the end of the tenth
century. Begram might have been finally destroyed by Chengiz Khan, ‘ a
merciless barbarian’. (AGI p26). Cunningham identifies another city, Cadrusi,
with the old site of Koratus six miles to the north-east of Begram where
remains of old city could be found consisting of mounds covered with fragments
of pottery and old coins. There are also remains of masonry works. Ptolemy
recorded some other peoples and towns which cannot be traced now. Hwen Thsang
says that the language was not Turki but their alphabet was that of Turks, but
as the king was Indian it is reasonable to infer that the language might be
Indian. (AGI p33)
2.
Kophene
or Kabul: Ptolemy mentions the district of Kabul. The length
of the district from the sources of the Helmand river to the Jagdalak Pass is
about 150 miles and its breadth from Istalif to the sources of the Logarh river
is about 70 miles. The district of Kophene, opines Cunningham, might have got
its name from the river which flowed through it. Kubha river is mentioned in the Vedas.[xxiii]
Ptolemy called these people Kabolita and their capital Kabura. Strabo and Pliny
called it Ortospana (Othrospanum of Pliny). H H Wilson suggests that its Sanskritized
name might be Urddhasthana (a high
place). Chinese pilgrim refers to Vardasthana
(district of Wardak tribe) while the province is identified as Hupian or Opian
at some distance south of Kabul. Cunningham concludes that both names refer to
the immediate neighbourhood of Kabul itself. The position of Ortospana,
Cunningham identifies with its Bala Hisar
(high fort). It was the old capital of the country before Macedonian
conquest. Even in the 10th century, it was believed “that a king was
not properly qualified to govern until he had been inaugurated at Kabul”. (AGI
p30). Alexander passed through a city on his way from Arachosia to the site of
Alexandria. This town, Cunningham thinks, was Nikaia (stone city) situated near
a lake which is peculiar in Northern India to Kabul and Kashmir. The lake was
named Astakia after a nymph whom Bacchus had abused. The city is also said to
have been called Indophon or ‘Indian
Killer’ on account of the victory which Bacchus had gained over the Indians on
this spot. Cunningham infers that the present popular name ‘Hindu-kush’ (Hindu killer) is attributed
to Indophon. Ptolemy mentions the
city of Kabura and the Kabolita with the towns of Arguda (Argandi), Locharna (Logarh)
and Bagarda along the river Kabul. In the seventh century,
the king of Kophene was a Turk, and the language of the country was different
from that of the people of Ghazni. Cunnigham conjectures on the lines of
Kapisene that the language of Kophene was some dialect of Turki, because the
king of the district was a Turk. (AGI p33)
3.
Archosia
or Ghazni: The kindom
was 1166 miles in circuit including the whole of south-western Afghanistan with
the exception of Kandahar. It had two capitals called Ho-si-na (Ghazni) and Ho-sa-lo. In the seventh century, the king of Ghazni,
who was a Buddhist, was descended from a long line of ancestors. Cunningham
infers that their speech ‘was most possibly Pushtu and that the people might
have been Afghans’. Ghazni might have been very flourishing by 7th
century. Hwen Thsang estimates the circuit of the town at 5 miles, but the
present day (Cunningham’s times) walled town is not more than one mile and a
quarter with sides varying from 200 to 400 yards in length, strengthened by
numerous towers. Ghazni was famous in the East as a place of strength and
security; and for this reason it got its name from Gaza means ‘treasury’ in old Persian. It was known for its
impregnability.
4.
Lan-po or Lamghan: This district was about 100 miles to the east
of Kapisene. Cunningham suggests that the original form of the name might be
the Sanskrit Lampaka. The district
was 166 miles in circuit according to Hwen Thsang with snowy mountains on the
north and black hills on the other three sides. It was formerly a separate
kingdom; but in the seventh century the royal family was extinct and became a
dependent on Kapisene.
5.
Nagarahara
or Jalalabad:
Nagarahara[xxiv]
was 100 miles in length (east to west) and 42 miles in breadth (from
south to north). It has Jagdalak Pass on the west, and the Khaibar Pass on the
east, Kabul river in the north and snowy maintains in the south. It was
Ptolemy’s Nagara which was situated
midway between Kabura and the Indus. The capital, Hilo, was only three quarters of a mile in circuit situated 2 miles
to the west of Jalalabad. There was a stupa
where Buddha’s skull bone was deposited. It was exhibited to those who
could pay a piece of gold. Situated at 5 miles south of Jalalabad, a tiny village
Hidda was well known for its large collection of Buddhist stupas. Cunningham conjectures that the name Hidda might have come
from the word Haddi which means bone.
(AGI p38). He states that the place containing the skull-bone of Buddha might
have been called Asthipura amongst the learned and Haddipura by the common
people. It is called Na-kie or Nagara by Fa Hian (5th
century) when it was an independent State. When Hwen Thsang (7th
century) visited it was under Kapisene and later successively became a part of
Brahman kingdom of Kabul and the Muhammadan Empire of Ghazni.
6.
Gandhara
or Parashawar: The district of Gandhara[xxv] lying
along the river Kophes, between the
Choaspes and the Indus. The district was 166 miles from east to west and 133
miles from north to south. The capital which they called Pu-lu-sha-pulo or Parashapura[xxvi]
could be identified with the present Peshawar which was known till the
Akbar’s times as Parashawar. Fa Hian states
that this city was 112 miles away from Nagarahara. Parashawar or Peshawar was
considered a holy town for Buddhists. The town was known for having venerated
‘begging bowl’ of Buddha and the holy Pipal
tree one and a half mile to the south-east of the city. The tree was 100ft
high. The tree was planted by Kanishka and the Chinese plgrim Sung-Yun called
it Pho-thi (Bodhi).There was an
enormous Stupa by the side of the
tree built by Kanishka. The Stupa was
400ft high and one quarter of a mile in circumference.[xxvii]
It contained a large quantity of relics of Buddha. The adjoining monastery had become celebrated amongst the
Buddhists through the fame of Arya-Parswika,
Manorhita and Vasubandhu , three
great leaders and teachers of Buddhism. It was still a flourishing center of
education till 10th century when Vira Deva of Magadha was sent to the “great
Vihara of Kanishka whre the best of teachers were to be found, and which was
famous for the quietism of its frequenters.” (AGI p68). The monastery was known
as Gor-Kotri (a Baniya’s house) where
“Jogis of the Hindus …. come from
great distances to cut off their hair and shave their beards” reported Babur in
his Memoirs.
The
other towns of the district cited by Ptolemy and Alexander’s historians are not
identified. So, Cunningham tried to follow the routes of Fa Hian and Hwen
Thsang and describes the sites visited by the Chinese pilgrims. Gandhara is
known from the times of Puranas and Epics. The ancient capital of Gandhara was Pushkalavati founded by Pushkara, son of
Bharata and the nephew of Rama according to Vishnu Purana. During the
Alexander’s times, it was a very large and populous country. Its king Astes
(Hasti) died in defence of his kingdom against the Greeks after a thirty-days
siege. There were “Eight Cities”[xxviii]
named as Hasthanagar seated close
together on the eastern bank of the lower Swat River. They might be originally
portions of a large town. The fort of Histr
stands on a mound above the ruins of the old town of Hashtanagar. General
Court says, “All the suburbs are scattered over with vast ruins”. (AGI p43). There
were remains of some early town known as Palodheri
(a village of Pali situated on dheri or mound of ruins). It was 40
miles from Pushkalavati. There is a great cave of Kashmiri Ghar in the hill to the north-east. In the cave of
hill Dantaloka, prince Sudana and his wife took refuge. U-to-kia-han-cha (Udakhanda of Julien), also known as Hund or Ohind is situated
on the north bank of the river Indus, about 15 miles above Attok. Cunningham
suggests that the original name of the town, Utakhanda or Ut-khand was
softened to Uhand or Bhithanda and then shortened to Uhand or Ohind,
which he believes was the capital of the Brahman kings of Kabul whose
dynasty was extinguished by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026 AD. He says that constant
encroachments of Indus river might have swept away major portion of the town. So-lo-tu-lo or Salatura or Lahor is 4
miles to Ohind, the birth place great
grammarian, Panini. Cunningham also tried to identify the towns like
Aoronos with Varanasi belonging to Raja Vara, adjacent to this there was Rani-gat above Nogram (or Queen’s rock)
where Raja Vara’s Rani used to sit daily on this high seat. He further
identifies Bazaria, Aoros and Embolima (Greek names) to Bazar,
Rani-gat and Ohind. Bazar was a large village situated on the banks of Kalpan or Kali-pani, a place of consequence for its trade and commerce. (AGI
p56). This district is known for ‘several renowned places of ancient India;
some celebrated in the stirring history of Alexander’s exploits, and others
famous in the miraculous legends of Buddha, and in the subsequent history of
Buddhism under the Indo-scythian prince Kanishka,’ says Cunningham. (AGI p41).
The town Pushkalavati was famous for a large Stupa which was erected on the spot where Buddha was said to have
made an ‘offering of his eyes’. (AGI p44).
7.
Udyana
or Swat: U-chang-na
or
Udyana[xxix]
is situated on the river Su-po-fa-su-tu[xxx]
presently known as Swat or Suat. The
country was described as highly irrigated and very fertile. Swat was second
only to the far-famed valley of Kashmir. Hwen Thsang estimates that it was 833
miles in circuit covering all the tributaries of River Swat. The legend of ‘the
hawk and the pigeon’ in which Buddha, to save a pigeon tears his own flesh and
offers to hawk, is connected to this region. Fa-Hian says that Buddha was then
a king named Shi-pi-ka or Sivika. The capital of Udyana was called
Mung-kie-li or Mangala. There was a celebrated wooden statue of future Buddha,
Maitreya, which was erected after 300 years of the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha. It was 100 ft high according Hwen
Thsang,erected by Madhyantika[xxxi]
school. (AGI p70)
8. Bolor or Balti: This district was 666
miles in circuit and its greatest length being from east to west.[xxxii]
The district was surrounded by snowy mountains and produced large quantity of
gold. Balti still is famous for gold washings.
9. Falana or Banu : Its
original name was Varana or Barna.[xxxiii]
It was 666 miles in circuit and placed to the south-east of Ghazni. The
district was chiefly composed of mountains and forests. The language of the
people resembled that of Central India.
10. Opokien or Afghansitan: Opokien
lies between Falana and Ghazni. Cunningham was inclined to identify Opokien or
Avakan with Afghan.
II
Kingdom of Kashmir
In
the seventh century, the kingdom was comprising of Kashmir valley and also the
whole of hilly country between the Indus and the Chenab to the foot of the Salt
range in the south. Its extended circuit was no less than 900 miles[xxxiv].
There were six sub-regions under this kingdom which were either directly ruled
from Kashmir or ruled by small chieftains owing allegiance to the king of
Kashmir. They were 1) Kashmir proper, 2) Urasa, 3) Taxila, 4) Sinhgapura, 5)
Punacha and 6) Rajapura.
1)
Kashmir:
Kashmir
proper is surrounded by lofty mountains which is 300 miles in circuit. From the
earliest times Kashmir was divided into two large districts of Kamraj
and Meraj.[xxxv]
Hwen Thsang sais that the king was Brahmanical while the queen patronized
Buddhism. Queen Anangalekha built a Vihara
after her name, Anangabhavana, while
the king built a temple to Vishnu, called after himself, Durlabha-swamina. The people of Kashmir were good looking but the
pilgrim commented on their character negatively. The principal ancient cities
of Kashmir were: Srinagari[xxxvi]
(the old capital), Pravarasenapura (new
capital), Khagendrapura and and Khunamusha, built before the time of
Asoka, Vijipura and Pantasok
(Asoka’s times), Surapura ,
restoration of ancient Kambuva,
Kanishkapura, Hushkapura, and Jushkapura
named after the three Indo-Scythian Princes by whom they were founded, Parihasapura, built by Lalitaditya, Padmapura, named after Padma, the
minister of Raja Vrihaspati, and Avantipura
, named after Raja Avanti Varmama. The oldest temple in Kashmir, Jyeshta Rudra, was found on the top of
the Takht-i-Suliman.[xxxvii]
Srinagari also had two Asokeswara temples
! Towards the end of 5th century, Pravarasena II built the new
capital, Pravarasenapura, and he also
built a temple for God Siva after his name, Pravareswara.
There were many Siva temples in the valley. The Muhammadans destroyed them.[xxxviii]
2)
Urasa:
The
district of U-la-shi or Urasa was a
mountainous district in the vicinity of the valley. The district was 333 miles
in circuit. The principal towns of the district were Mansera, in the north-east; Noshahra,
in the middle, and Kishangarh or Haripur.
3)
Taxila
or Takshasila: The district of Taxila[xxxix]
was 333 miles in circuit. It was bounded by the Indus on the west, by the
district of Urasa on the north, the Jhelam river on the east and Sinhapura on
the south. Hwen Thsang[xl]
visited twice this city. He describes the city that it was one and a half mile
in circuit. Cunningham identifies the site of the ancient city with the ruins
near Shah-dheri. The ruins of ancient habitats covering over an area of six
square miles, now known as Bir, Hatial,
Sir-Kap-ka-kot, Kacha-kot, Babar khana and Sir-Suk-ka-kot might be included
in ancient city of Taxila. Manikyala had a great Stupa where Buddha offered his body to a starving tiger. The Stupa was built by Raja Man on whose
name the Stupa was erected and a
city, Maniknagar or Manikur came up.
4)
Singhapura
or Ketas: The district was 600 miles in circuit. On the west
it was bounded by the Indus, on the north by the southern frontier of Taxila,
and on the south by the Jhelam and on the north Taki. The capital of Singhapura was identified with the ruined
fort of Kotera or the area around holy
tanks of Ketaksh or Khetas[xli].
The circuit of the town was less than three quarters of a mile. The holy
place was claimed by the Jains, Buddhists and Brahmins.
5)
Punacha
or Punach The district of Punacha or Punach[xlii]
was 333 miles in circuit. It is bounded by Jhelum on the west, Pir Panchal
range on the north, Rajaori on other sides. It formed part of the kingdom of
Kashmir on several occasions.
6)
Rajapura
or Rajaori : The circuit of the district was about 667
miles. The petty principalities were mostly dependent on Kashmir. Rajapuri is
frequently heard from the medieval period. (AGI p109).
Cunningham
adds ‘a brief outline of the petty states now shown under Panjab. They were
twenty–two Muhammadan and twenty-two Hindu states. These states were under the
control of three major kingdoms of the region, Kashmir, Dogra and Trigartta.
Most of the Hindu rulers claim their origin to Surya Vamsa or Soma Vamsa and
owe their allegiance to Rajputs or kings of Kashmir. As the Muhammadans
advanced, these rajas left the plains and settled in the hills. Jalandhara,
genrally known as Kangra, was about
167 miles from east to west and 133 miles from north to south. According to Padma Purana, Jalandhara was a
powerful daitya king who became
invincible through his penance. He was overwhelmed by Siva and crushed to death
under the heap of mountains. The royal family of Jalandhara and Kangra was one
of the oldest in India. The other chief kingdoms were Champa, Kullu, Mandi
and Sukhet, Nurpur or Pathania and Satadru. (AGIp100).
III
Taki or Panjab:
The kingdom of Tse-kia, in the seventh century embraced
the whole of the plains of Panjab from the Indus to the Biks and from the foot
of the mountains to the junction of the five rivers below Multan. Takin might be intended for the hills of
Panjab. Taki or Panjab was divided into
Taki, Bukhephala, Shorkot and Multan. The province of Taki comprised the
plains of the Panjab, Multan in the place of Doab and Multan in the lower portions.
1. Taki, or Northern Panjab: Taki
contained ‘several of the most celebrated places –some connected to Alexander’s
invasion, some famous in Buddhist history and others were known for the widely
traditions of the people. Jobnathnagar or Bhira, the city of Raja Jobnath or
Chobnath which was described by the Greek historians, was identified with Porus
by Cunningham.
2. Bukephala or Dilwar: It
was the site of the defeat of Porus which was contested by many. Bukhephala was
also one along with Jhelam, Nikoie or Mong and Jalalpur. Cunningham presents a
long discussion on the identification of the historic meet between Porus and
Alexander. He gives Arrian’s account of the battle.[xliii]
Cunningham says that the city of Bukhephala was where Alexander had crossed the
river. Mong might be the city which Alexander built at the site of his victory.
Sakala and Sagala were also very famous sites in respect of Puranic and
Buddhist accounts. In the beginning of
Christian era, Sagala was the capital of Raja Milinda very famous among the
Buddhists. Sakala was subject to Mihirkul who lost his kingdom to Baladitya,
the king of Magadha. The region could boast of several ruins of cities and
monasteries at Ran-si, Nara-Sinha, Asarur, Ambakapani or Amakatis etc. At
Asarur, ruins of an extensive mound 3 miles in circuit with 59 ft high was
found which includes royal palaces. The city of Lahor or Lohawar was the
capital of Panjab for nearly 900 years. Lo,
Lava, son of Rama, is said to have constructed the city. Another city
Kusawar or Kasur was founded by Rama’s another son, Kusa.
3. Shorkot: The
province was 531 miles in circuit. There are several important towns and many
ruined mounds, the remains of many cities. Shorkot and Kot Kamalia in Rchna
Doab, Harapa, Akbar and Satgarha in Bari Doab and Depalpur and Ajudhan in Doab
Jalandhar Pith are included. The foundation of Shorkot was attributed to a
fabulous Raja Shor about whom nothing is known. Kot Kamalia was a small ancient
town. Kota Kamalia and Harapa were among those cities which fell to Greek army.
Most of these towns were destroyed in Muhammadan invasions.
4. Multan: It
is the southern province of Panjab. There were 17 paraganas during Akbar’s
reign. In Multan division old sites are numerous. To name a few, Tulamba, Atari
and Mutan in Bari Doab, Kahror at Jalandhar Pith, and Uchh at Junction, Ruins
at Tulamba indicate that it might have been a strong fortress in ancient times.
The old town was plundered and burnt by Timur. Atari had a great citadel which
fell to Alexander. Alexander went completely round the citadel in a boat. The
ditch was so wide and deep. Multan was a walled city. The citadel was an
irregular semi-circle. Multan was known
by several names which all connect to either to Vishnu or Sun. It was known as
Kasyapapura[xliv]
founded by Kasyapa father of Daitya and Adityas. He was succeeded by
Hiranyakasyapa. It was also known as Prahladapura named after his son Prahlada.
The kingdom of Multan was occupied by Lord Krishna and his son, Samba was mae
its ruler. So it was known as Sambapura. Several traditions are connected to
this place. There was a temple with
golden statue of Sun which was famous throughout the country and offerings were
pouring into temple, reports Hwen Thsang. It was known as Golden Temple. Multan
might have derived from the word Mulasthana[xlv]
. A detailed account of the siege of Multan by Alexander is added by
Cunningham. (AGI p 199-203. The heroic resistance by the Indians was
appreciated by the Greek chronicles. Alexander was wounded in this battle.
Another town Uchh (Sanskrit Uccha meaning
‘High’) was on at a height from the plains. It is “distinguished by the ruins
of the former towns, which are very extensive, and attest the pristine
prosperity of the locality” says Masson. (AGI p204).
Western
India
In
the seventh century, Western India had three major divisions –I) Sindh, II) Gurjjara and III) Balabhi.
I)
Sindh:
Sindh
comprised the whole valley of the Indus from the Panjab to the sea including
the delta and the island of Kachh. The region is divided into four
principalities, as 1) Upper Sindh, 2) Middle Sindh, 3) Lower Sindh and 4)
Kuchh. After the Alexander’s invasion, this was under the rule of Ayand, son of Kajand. At that time these
three principalities were known as Zor,
Askalanduza, Samid and Lohana. During
the times of Hwen Thsang, these four districts formed parts of one kingdom
under the Raja of Upper Sindh.
1.
Upper
Sindh: Generally known as Siro (Head or Upper) is 1167 miles in circuit. Its capital was
named, Pi-chen-po-pu-lo (Vichavapura
or Vichalapura).[xlvi]
In upper Sindh, only places of ancient note are Alor, Ravi-Bhakar and Mahoria, near Larkahana. In the Alexander’s
campaign, Massana, the Sogdi, the Musikani, and the Prasti are known.
2. Middle Sindh: It
was generally known as Vichalo (Midland).
Its circumference was 417 miles. The chief city, O-fan-cha, has ruins of an ancient city called Bambhra-ka-Tul or Ruined Tower. According to tradition, it was the
site of once famous city of Brahmanavas or Brahmanabad. At present, the
principal places in this division of Sindh are Sehwin, Hala, Haidarabad and
Umarkot. But under Hindu rule, the great cities were Sadusan, Brahmana or Brahmanwas and Nirunkot. Nirunkot was most probably Haidarabad and the ancient Pattala. The places mentioned in the time
of Alexander were Sindomana, and a
city of Brahmans named Harmatelya. Alexander
on his return march appointed Raja Sambus of Brahmanabad who submitted to him,
as his Satrap for the hilly region. But his people, Brahmans, revolted and shut
themselves in the fort. But Greeks,by stratagem induced them to come out and in
the conflict ensued they were to death. It was the last city of Brahmins who
opposed Alexander.[xlvii]
Alexander during his stay at Delta, caused many new cities to come up.
3. Lower Sindh: The
district was 500 miles in circuit. Hwen Thsang mentions only one city namely Pitasila or Patala. The historians of Mohammad Bin Kasim add Debal and Nirankot. The king of Patala though
submitted to Alexander, rebelled after Alexander left the place. Alexander had
to come back to subdue him. Such troubles vexed Alexander on his way back. A little town of Jarak has ruins of great
temples, and Stupas. Debal was a
celebrated sea-port. Debal means simply a temple.
4. Kuchh: The
district was 267 miles in circuit. Its
capital was Alor
Cunningham gives
particulars of other districts to the west of the Indus connected to Alexander,
such as Arabil or Arabitae, Oritae etc. (AGI, 256-262)
II Gurjjara :
The second kingdom
in western India, Gurjjara[xlviii],
was about 300 miles to the north of Balabhi and 467 miles to the north-west of
Ujjain. The capital was Balmer. The kingdom was 833 miles in circuit. Its
boundaries were extending about 130 miles on the north from Balar or Sirdarkot
to Junjhnu, 250 miles on the east from Junjhnu to near Mount Abu, 17 miles on
the south from Abu to near Umakot and 310 miles from Umakot to Balar. The
region forming part of Rajaputana and Panjab was well known for its silver
mines which attracted enemies from outside, the Arabs, Ghazni and Ghor rulers
besides compatriots. So they used to maintain strong cavalry always. The
inscriptions tell us that it was under the rule of Gurjjara kings from about 4thcentury
AD. Most of these inscriptions connect them to mid 5th century.
Their earliest inscription states a record of grant to Brahmins dwelling in the
town of “Jambasura” (AGI, p.266). The
Gurjjars had pushed their conquests as far south as the banks of the river
Narbada in 458 AD. The Gurjjara king Sri
Datta Kusali made several grants of land to certain Brahmins in the district of
Akrureswara near Jambusara which Cunningham identifies with Aklesar on the south
bank of Narbada. (AGI p271). He further says that the natives did not call the
province Gujarat at his times but they called it either Surat or Kathiwar.
III
Valabhadra or Balabhi
In the seventh
century, the kingdom of Balabhi was 1000 miles in circuit. The ruins of famous
city of Balabhi[xlix]
were discovered by Tod near Bhaonagar on the eastern side of the Peninsula of
Gujarat. An inscription of 5th century describes “the beautiful
kingdom of Valabhadra” but it is generally known as Balabhi. (AGI, p266-67). But the inscription of 812 AD
of Raja of Karka[l]
refers to the ancestor of the king, Govinda[li],
as “ornament of Sourashtra” kingdom. Again
Karka’s father Lateswara himself identifies his kingdom with Balabhi.
Cunningham concludes that the old name of Saurashtra was lost in 319 AD when
the successors of Saka kings were supplanted by Vallabhas and the capital
changed from Junagarh to Valabhi. (AGI, p267). The Ballabhis who were expelled by
Govinda founded a new kingdom in Chitore. The second in succession, Guhila or
Guhaditya, gave his name to his tribe, Guhilawat
or Guhilat. About the same time, a chief of Chaura tribe, named Bana Raja or the ‘Jangal lord’ founded a city on the banks of Saraswati called Analwara Pattan. About 720 AD, Krishna,
the Pahlava king, built the fort of Elapura
“the beauty of which according to the inscription, astonished the
immortals”. (AGI, p 268). He also
constructed a Siva temple in this new city which was usually called Pattan
Somnath. Cunningham was inclined to identify this Elapura with Somnath. We come
to know much about this temple which was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. Ferishta
describes the city of Somnath as situated “on a narrow peninsula, washed on
three sides by the sea.” (AGI p 269). After destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni, city
of Somath lost its importance and Analwar became capital city when Mahmud of
Ghor invaded this country. Balabhi was a large kingdom including the whole of
peninsula of Surashtra and the districts of Surat and Bharoch.
1. Surashtra : Su-la-cha
or Suratha was dependent on Balabhi. Its capital, Junagarh, was situated at
the foot of Mount Ujjanta (Girnar Hill). The province was small, but very rich,
and had the ocean to the south. Surath was 667 miles in circuit and touched the
river Mo-hi [lii]on
the west. In spite of the fame of Balabhi, the old name of Surath was still
applied to the whole peninsula so late as 640 AD. (AGI p 274).
2. Bharoch or Baryagaza : The
district Barukachwa[liii]
was 400-417 miles in circuit. Its chief city, Bharoch (Bhrugu-Kachha or Bharu-Kachha) was on
the bank of Narbada river and close to
sea.
Central India
According to
Hwen Thsang, the Central India extended from the Satlej to the head of the
Gangetic Delta and from the Himalayan Mountains to the Narbada and Mahanadi
rivers. It comprised “of all the richest and most populous districts of India,
with an exception of the Gangetic Delta or Bengal Proper” says Cunningham.
(AGI, p 276). ‘Of the seventy separate states of India in the seventh century,
no less than thirty-seven, or rather than one-half belonged to Central India’.
Cunningham chose to ‘follow the footsteps of Hwen Thsang’ who visited all these
states in Central India for his description. According to Hwen Thsang the
entire Central India was under the suzerainty of Harsha Vardhana of Pushyabhuti
dynasty.
1. Sthaneswara : Sthaneswara
was the capital of a separate kingdom which was a tributary of Harsha. The
province was 1167 miles in circuit extending from the Satlej to the Ganges. The
town of Sthaneswar ( Thaneswar) consists of an old ruined fort, about 12000 sq
ft. at top, with the modern town on a mound to the east. According to
tradition, the town was built by Raja Dilip, a discendent of Kuru. The name Sthaneswar is said to be derived
from the Sthana,(Mahadeva). Sthanu and Iswara, both, are His names. All the country between the Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers is known as Kuru-kshetra,
the land of Kuru who is said to have become an ascetic on the bank of the
lake known as Brahma-Sar, Rama-hrad[liv],
Vayu, or Vayava-Sar and Pavan-Sar.
The old town of Prithudaka was situated on the banks of Saraswati, 14 miles to
the west of Thaneswar which is connected to the famous Prithu Chakravarti who was the first person to get the title of
Raja.[lv]
Five miles to the south of Thanewar, there is a large and lofty mound called Amin which is said to be the place where
Chakravyuha was arranged in which
Abhimanyu son of Arjuna was murdered by
Kauravas. There is also a Surya-kund with
a temple to Aditi.
2. Bairat: In
the seventh century, the country was 500 miles in circuit. Bairat included the greater part of present
Jaipur. The city of Paryatra or Bairat
is also pronounced as Virat , the
capital of Matsya . The capital was
two and a half miles in circuit. The Pandavas took refuge when they were in
exile. The residence of Bhim is shown on the top of a long low rocky hill about
one mile to the north of the town. This country has long been famous for its
copper mines. The city was plundered and ruined by Mahmud of Ghazni.
3. Srughna:
Kingdom Srughna was 1000 miles in circuit. Now known as Sughan and Sugh, the
village of Sugh “occupies one of the most remarkable positions that I met with
during the whole course of my researches” says Cunningham. (AGI, p 291). In
shape it is almost a triangular, with a large projecting fort or citadel at
each of the angles and surrounded on three sides by the bed of the old Jamuna
river.
4. Madawar: The kingdom of Madawar
(Madipura)[lvi]
was 1000 miles in circuit. The king of Madawar was a Sudra who worshippd Devas and
cared nothing for Buddhism according to Hwen Thsang. The capital, Madipura ,
was in Western Rohikhand. On the north-western frontier, a town called Mayura was situated where there was a great
temple called “the gate of the Ganges” known as Ganga-dwara, old name of Haridwara. Cunningham discussed the
dispute about the place which was known both ways as Haradwara and Haridwara. (AGI pp295-299).
5. Bramhaputra : The kingdom of Brahmaputra
was 667 miles in circuit including the whole of the hill-country between the
Alakananda and Karnali rivers which is now known as British Garhwal and Kumaon
districts.
6. Govisana or Kashipur: The district of
Govisana was 333 miles in circuit including the present [lvii]
districts of Kashipur, Rampur and
Pillibhit. Cunningham infers that the old fort near the village Ujain represents the ancient city of Govisana. The
fort had a peculiar form. It may be compared to the body of a guitar, 3000 ft
in length and 1500 ft in breadth and the circuit was less than two and a half
miles.
7. Ahichhatra: The district Ahichhatra was about 500 miles in
circuit comprising eastern half of Rohilkhand[lviii].
The city Ahicchatra was just 3 miles in circuit. Its antiquity goes back to BC
1430[lix]
when it was the capital of northern Panchala.
The local legend of Adi Raja and Naga who formed a canopy over his head when
asleep is connected to the founding of this kingdom. Drona of Mahabharata found
him sleeping under the guardianship of serpent predicted that he would become a
king in future. The fort is called Adikot.
8. Piloshana: Piloshana was about 250
miles in circuit extending from Bulandshahar to Firuzabad and the Jumna and
Kadirganj on the Ganges. Cunningham was “led to believe that Soron was the only place in this vicinity of great
antiquity.” (AGI p307). The place was
originally called Ukala Kshetra. Here
the demon Hiranyaksha was killed by
Vishnu in the form of a Boar . Later its name changed to Sukara (‘the place of good deed’). The ancient town is represented
by a ruined mound called the Kilah or
fort.[lx]
The original settlement of the place is very much older and attributed to the
fabulous Raja Vena Chakravarti who
plays a conspicuous part in all the legends of North Bihar, Oudh and
Rohilkhand.
9. Sankisa : Sankisa might be 220
miles in circuit with Ganges and Jamuna on the north and south. Sankisa town was about 3 miles in
circuit. It was one of the most famous places of Buddhist pilgrimages. The
Buddhist legend says that Buddha descended at this place through a gold
staircase accompanied by Indra and Brahma from the Trayastrinsa heaven after preaching the Law of Buddha to his mother
Maya. There was a monastery here. Sankisa was deserted from 1800 to 1900 years
ago and the site was given to a body of Brahmins in about 560 years ago. Hwen
Thsang said that many tens of thousands of Brahmins dwelt around the mound. The
village was wholly populated by Brahmins as reported by him. (AGI p 14).
10. Mathura:
Mathura was the capital of a large kingdom which was
about 833 miles in circuit. It includes the present district of Mathura with
the small states of Bharatpur, Khiraoli and Dholpur and the northern half of
the Gwalior. The holy city of Mathura is
connected with the history of Krishna. Vrindavana (grove of basil trees) is
situated at 6 miles from Mathura. It is famed as the place of Krishna’s sports
with the milkmaids.
11. Kanoj: Kanoj including all the country between
Kairabad and Tanda on the Ghagra and
Etawa and Allahabad on the Jumna might be 600 miles in circuit. The
great city of Kanoj was the Hindu capital of the most part of northern India
for many hundreds of years. It was the capital of Harsha Vardhana in seventh
century. The ancient city of 7th century had a length of 3 miles
with 1 mile breadth. Within these limits are found all the ruins that still
exist to point out the position of the once famous city of Kanoj. (AGI p322)
12. Ayuto : Ayuto
was a small tract lying between Kakupur and Cawnpur and it was 83 miles in
circuit. Kakupura, the capital, was once a large city with a Raja of its own.
The ruined mound indicate a fort named
Chhatrapur, found by Raja Chhatra Pal Chandel some 900 years ago. There were two famous temples dedicated to Kshireswara Mahadeva and Aswathama
, son of Drona of Mahabharata. (AGI p3 25).
13. Hayamukha : Cunningham says Haya Mukha[lxi]
might have comprised the whole of the present Baiswara which lies between Sai and the Ganges rivers from Cawnpore
to Manikpur and Solon. The principality was about 417 miles in circuit.
Cunningham identifies the town, Hayamukha, with Daundia-khera, which 3 miles in circuit.
14. Prayaga: Cunningham
says that Prayaga might have been a small tract in the fork of the Doab, immediately above the junction of
the Ganges and Jumna. It might be 83 miles in circuit. The city of Prayag (now
known as Allahabad) was existing during the Asokan times. It got its name from
the “tree of prag” which was placed
in the centre of the city. It is a great pilgrimage centre for the Hindus.
15. Kosambi: The district of Kosambi might be 100
miles in circuit. It is said that present Kosambi stands on the actual site of
ancient Kosambi which was also mentioned in Ramayana. Kosam was the actual site of the once famous Kosambi. The present
ruins of Kosambi consist of immense fortress formed of earthen ramparts and
bastions with a circuit of 4 miles and 3 furlongs. A legend of infant, Bakkula,
is connected to this place.[lxii]
16. Kusapura : Cunningham
identifies Kusapura with the present Sultanpur which was one and a half mile in
circuit. Kusapura is named after Rama’s son Kusa. The site was in a strategic
place being surrounded by Gomati river on three sides. Eighteen miles from
Kusapur, there is a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage called Dhopapapura. (AGI, p 338).
17. Visakha, Saketa or Ajudhya : The
district might be 67 miles in circuit comprising of small tract lying around
Ajudhya, between the Ghagra and Gomati rivers. Visakha city might be two and a
half miles in circuit. Cunningham identifies that all these names, Visakha,
Saketa and Ajudhya denote the same site, the capital of Sri Rama. Visakha,[lxiii]
the most celebrated of all females in Buddhist history was a resident of Saketa
before her marriage with Purna Vardhana, son of Mrigara, the rich merchant of
Sravasti. Her father, also a rich merchant called Dhana Deva migrated from
Rajagriha to Saketa. Visakha erected a Purvarama
at Sravasti where Buddha stayed for 16 years and 9 years in Jetavana according to Ceylonese account.
18. Sravasti : In
the seventh century, the kingdom of Sravasti might be comprising all the
country lying between Himalayas and the Ghagra river, from the Karnali river on
the west to the mountain of Dhaolagiri and Faizabad on the east, 600 miles in
circuit. The city Sravasti is said to have
been built by Raja Sravasta, the son of Yuvanaswa of solar race long before
Rama. Cunningham says, “Its foundation, therefore, reaches to the fabulous
ages of Indian history. Purana assigns the city to Lava after Rama. Again it
gains importance during the times of Buddha when it was the capital of King
Prasenajit, the king of Maha Kosala. He took to Buddhism. But his son,
Virudhaka hated the race of Sakyas and his invasion of their country and
subsequent massacre of 500 maidens who had been selected for his harem brought
forth a prediction of Buddha that within seven days the king would be consumed
by fire. The prediction came true. Sravasti during Hwen Thsang’s times, was
under the rule of King Vikramaditya who became a persecutor of Buddhists.
Buddhist scholar, Manorhita was worsted by Brahmins in arguments and he was put
to death. But his son, Vasubandhu, a great Buddhist scholar, defeated Brahmin
scholars during the reign of the successor to Vikramaditya. (AGI, p 347).
19. Kapila: Kapila
was 667 miles in circuit stretching over a tract lying between the Ghagra and
Gandak from Faizabad to the confluence of those rivers. The capital city,
Kapila, is the birth place of Gotama. According to Buddhist chronicles,
Kapilavastu or Kapilanagara was founded by some descendents of the solar hero
Gotama on the bank of a lake near the river Rohini in Kosala. Kapila might also refer to sage Kapila
whose hermitage was also on the bank of the lake opposite city. The river
Rohini was flowing between the cities of Kapila and Koli which was the birth
place of Maya Devi. It was also called Vyaghrapura.
About 33 miles from Kapila, the Chinese travelers found a city called
Ramagrama. This site is connected with the division of Buddha’s relics into
eight parts and the entire casket was washed away by the river and reached
ocean where nagas have retrieved it
and presented to their king who built a stupa.
(AGI, p 355-6). The river Anoma was famous in the history of Buddhism as the
scene of Prince Siddhartha’s assumption of the dress of an ascetic, where he
cut off his hair.[lxiv] At Pippalavana, a stupa was erected over the charcoal ashes of the funeral pile of
Buddha. The Moriyas of the city,
having applied too late for a share in the relics of the body were obliged to
be content with the ashes. (AGI, p 362).
20. Kusinagara: Kusinagara,
the capital city, was about 2 miles in circuit and it was in ruins when Hen
Thsang visited in 7th century. The place was also deserted. The spot
where Buddha attained Nirvana, Cunningham believes, might have been the site
where the present stupa stands and
ruins now called Matha-kuar-ka –kot or
the “fort of the Dead Prince” might be the place where his body was burnt. The
Buddhists believe that Buddha attained Nirvana
on the full-moon day of Visakha in
543 BC. Hwen Thsang left for Banaras from this place. On the way, he halted at
a large town where a Brahman devoted to Buddhism offered him hospitality. The
town is not identified. It might be Khukhundo
or Kahaon near Rudrapur. All this region was dominated by Brahmin
presence. According to Ceylonese chronicles, Buddha stopped at Pawa before he
reached Kusinagara. Between Pawa and Kusinagara, Buddha bathed in a stream
called Kukuttha. This stream could be
identified as the present Barhi or Barhi Nala.
Pawa was given a share of Buddha’s relics along with other seven major cities.
(AGI, p366).
21. Varanasi or Banaras
: The kingdom of Varanasi was 667 miles
and the capital city was 3 miles in circuit on the left bank of Ganges between
the Barna or Varana on the north-east
and Asi Nala on the south-west. Barna
is a considerable rivulet but Asi is mere a brook.The joint name Varanasi may have communicated its name
to the city. The points of junction of both streams with the Ganges are
considered particularly holy, and accordingly temples are erected at both Sangam places. The earliest name of
Varanasi was Kasi which is still in common use and also popular as Kasi-Banaras. Kasi-raja was one of the early progenitors of Lunar race. Banaras
is also a celebrated city for Buddhists for their Teacher gave his ‘First
Sermon’ here, [lxv]at
a place called Saranath.
22. Gajapatipura: About
50 miles to the east of Banaras, the present Ghazipura (Garjpur) might be the
Gajapatipura, the capital of a district about 333 miles in circuit lying
between the Ghagra on the north and the Gomati on the south, from Tanda on the
west to the confluence of the Ganges and Ghagra. In Gajapatipura, there existed
a monastery called Avidhakarna (“pierced
ears”). Still a small village one mile away from the monastery is called Avidhakarna-pura. The confluence of
Ganges and Ghogra was considered holy by the Brahmans and numerous temples were
erected. One such temple was that of Narayana
or Vishnu. To the east of the temple, was a monastery which is considered
as the spot where Buddha had overcome and converted certain evil Demons. (AGI,
p 371).
23. Vaishali: The
kingdom of Vaisali, Cunningham says, along with the neighboring kingdom of Vriji might be about 800 miles in
circuit. Both of the states are placed between the mountains and the Ganges.
Raja Visala was the founder of Vaisali . The fort in ruins could be found in a
village called Besarah. The royal palace was
about 3500 to 4400 feet in circuit. The people of Vaisali were called Lichhavis. Lichhavi, Vaideha and Tirabhukti are synonymous. Vaideha is
well known since Ramayaa times as a common name to Mithila.
Tirabhukti is the present Tirahut. The modern town of Janakpur in the
Mithari district is considered the capital of Mithila. Vrijis were a large tribe divided into several branches, namely Lichhavi of Vaisali, the Vaidhis of Mithila, the Tirabhuktis of Tirhut, etc.,.
24. Vriji: According
to Hwen Thsang, the country of the Vrijis was long from east to west and narrow
from north to south. The tract was lying between the Gandak and Mahanadi rivers
which is about 300 miles long and 100 miles in breadth. There were several
ancient cities some of which were the capitals of eight different clans of
Vrijis[lxvi].
Cunningham found Navandgarh “one of
the oldest and most interesting places in northern India”. (AGI, p 378). It is
a ruined fort from 250 to 300 ft square on the top and 80 ft in height. It is
situated close to the village of Lauriya. The
ancient remains include an Asokan Pillar and the Stupas were mounds of earth. Cunningham thinks that these mounds
might be sepulchral monuments of the early kings dating back to 600 to 1500 BC.
Colebrooks translates Stupa as ‘mound of earth’. Buddha complimented Wajjians, “they maintain, respect, reverence
and make offerings to them (the mounds or stupas
or chaityas) and that they keep up without diminution the ancient
offerings, the ancient observances, and the ancient sacrifices righteously
made”. Therefore, Cunningham maintains that these mounds were pre-Buddhist.
(AGI, p 379).
25. Nepala: Nepala
might be about 1000 miles in circuit consisting of seven streams of river Kosi,
named Sapta Kausiki. The
raja of Nepal was a Kshatriya belonging to Lichhavi
race. Curiously, the kings of Tibet, and Ladak were also Lichhavis. Cunningham thinks that they
might be off-shoots of Nepal royal family. The Lichhavi conquest of Nepal
was estimated by Cunningham to BC 4.
26. Magadha: The
province of Magadha was about 833 miles in circuit, bounded by the Ganges on
the north, by the districts of Banaras on the west, by Hiranya Parvata or
Mongiron on the east, and Kirana Suvarna or Singbhum on the south. The capital
of Magadha was known as Kusumapura but
it was deserted when Hwen Thsang visited. The old city was 11 2/3 miles in
circuit. The new town, Pataliputa pura, was
called as capital of India by the Greeks. Megasthenes gives a clear description
of the city. It was 25 ¼ miles in circuit. According to Vayu Purana, the city of Kusumapura or Pataliputra was founded by
Raja Udayaswa, grandson of Ajatasatru, a well known contemporary of Buddha.
Ajatasatru’s ministers were engaged in building a fort in the village Patali to check the Vrijis. Buddha predicted
that it would grow into a great city. The city was completed during the reign
of Udaya, the grandson of Ajatasatru about the year 450 BC. The position of the
city was at the junction of Ganges and Gandak (Hiranyavati) now known as river Sona
(gold). The Magadha was the scene of Buddha’s early career as a religious
reformer. It possesses a greater number of holy places connected to Buddhism
than any other province in India.[lxvii]
Cunningham gives the details of the Buddhist sites described by Hwen Thsang.
(AGI, pp 384-401). Some of these sites are also important from Puranic point of view. Kusagarapura (The town of Kusa grass)
was a city in ruins. On the hill near
the city, it is believed that sage Vyasa
had formally dwelt. The ruins of that house was still existing at that time.
There was a big cave which people called “the Palace of Asuras”. There is a
Mount called Vipula which Cuunningham identifies with Chaityaka of Mahabharata. In the neighborhood of Gaya, in an
another Buddhist site, just opposite the village Giryek, two parallel ranges of
hills stretch towards the north-east of which one is lower than the other in
height. The lower peak on the east is crowned
with a solid tower of brickwork well known as Jarasandh-ka-baithak or Jarasandha’s throne (Mahabharat) while
on the other there are ruins of Buddhist vihara.
27. Hiranya Parvata: Cunningham
fixes its limits as extending from Lakhi Sarai to Sultanganj on the Ganges in
the north and from the western end of Parsanth
hill to the junction and estimated its circuit as 350 miles. The capital city of the kingdom stood at
Mount Hiranya (Golden Mountain).
Cunningham identifies the mountain as Modagiri
mentioned in Mahabharat.
28. Champa:
Champa was the old name for Bhagalpur surrounded by Ganges. Its circuit was
about 667 miles bounded by the Ganges on the north and by Hiranya-Parvata or
Mongir on the west.
29. Kankjol:
Kankjo might have comprised the whole of hill country to the south and west of
Rajmahal with the plains lying between the hills and the Bhagirathi river as
far south as Mushirabad. This tract might be 300 miles in circuit.
30. Paundra Vardhana:
The country[lxviii]
bounded by the Mahanadi on the west and Tista and Brahmaputa on the east and
the Ganges on the south. It was 667 miles in circuit.
31. Jajhoti:
It corresponds with the modern district of Bundelkhand. Its capital was
Khajuraho. The country was 667 miles in circuit comprising all country to the
south of the Jumna and Ganges, from the Betwa river on the west of the temple Vindhyavasini Devi on the east and Bilhari
near the sources of the Narbada
river on the south. Jajhoti Brahmins[lxix]
were well distributed over the whole province. Khajuraho has most magnificent
group of Hindu temples. A traditional story is connected with Mahoba (Mahotsavanagar), another ancient city in
the region. The Chandelas sprang from Hemavati, a Brahmin girl, through Chadrama, the Moon around 800 AD. (AGI p
410).
32. Maheswarapura: The
kingdom was 500 miles in circuit extending from Dumoh and Leoni on the west to
the source of Narbada on the east.
33. Ujjain: The
kingdom was 1000 miles in circuit. It was bounded by Malwa on the west. It was
under the rule of Brahman Raja. The temples of gods were very numerous.
34. Malawa: Malawa
was bound by Vadari on the north, Balabhi on the west, Ujjain on the east and
Maharashtra on the south. It might be 167 miles in circuit with the ancient
Dhara (Dharanagari) as capital. Hwen Thsang writes that Magadha and Malawa were
especially esteemed for Buddhist studies. Malawa was having hundreds of
monasteries and no less than twenty
thousand monks of the school f Sammatiyas.
Fifty years before his visit, Malawa was ruled by a staunch Buddhist king, Siladitya. (AGI, p 415).
35. Kheda: Kheda
(the present Kaira) was extending from the bank of Sabarmati on the west to the
great bend of the Mahi river on the north-east and to Baroda in the south. In
shape a rough square. It was 500 miles
in circuit.
36. Anandapura: The
district was 333 miles in circuit and dependent on Malawa.
37. Vadari or Eder: The
size of the province was 1000 miles in circuit. Its boundaries might be Ajmer
and Ranthambhore to the north, the Loni and Chambal rivers on the east and
west, and the Malwa frontier on the south. Pliny described that the region was
possessing “extensive mines of gold and silver”. And so “the Gulf of Khambay
was the great emporium of Indian trade with the west” opines Cunningham. (AGI,
p 421).
Eastern
India
The
Eastern India comprised Assam and Bengal proper together with the Delta of
Ganges, Sambhalpur, Orissa and Ganjam. There were six kingdoms in Eastern India
according to Hwen Thsang. These are, Kamarupa,
Samatata, Tamralipti, Kirana Suvarna, Odra and Ganjam.
1. Kamarupa: Kamarupa
was the ancient name of Assam. The territory was 1667 miles in circuit
comprising the whole valley of the Brahmaputra river or modern Assam, together
with Kusa-Viahara and Butan. The Brahmaputra Valley was in turn divided into
three sub regions, Sadiya, Assam proper
and Kamarup. Kamarup was the most powerful state also the
nearest to the rest of India. Kusa-Vihara was the richest part of the country. Therefore,
it was for sometime capital of the country, The chief city was Kamatipura. The
old capital of Kamarup was Gohati on the south bank of Brahmaputra. On the
east, Kamarup touched the frontiers of
“western barbarians” of the Chinese province Shu. The king in the 7th century was Brahman, named
Bhaskara Varmma who claimed descent from Vishnu. His family were ruling the
country for 1000 generations, but he became a staunch Buddhist and accompanied
Harsha Vardhana in his procession from Pataliputra to Kanoj. (AGI, p421-3).
2. Samatata:
The country of Samatata is mentioned in the inscription of Samudra Gupta in
which it was coupled with Nepala. It is also mentioned in the geographical list
of Varahamihira. Hwen Thsang describes
it as ‘a low, moist country on the seashore’. Samatata might have been the
Delta of the Ganges and was about 500 miles in circuit.
3. Tamralipti:
The kingdom of Tamralipti was about 250 miles in circuit, situated on the
seashore and the surface of the country was wet and low. Tamralipti was the
Sanskrit name of Tamluk which is situated on Rupnarayan river. It was small
fertile land lying to the westward of the Hughli river.
4. Kirana-Suvarna: The
kingdom was 750 miles in circuit comprising all petty hill-states lying between
Medinpur and Sirguja on the east and west, and between the sources of the
Damuda and Vaitarani on the north and south. The province was occupied by wild
tribes with a collective name of Kols. The
people speak various dialects of two distinct languages belonging to two
different races, Munda and Uroons. The language of Uroons is connected to Tamil where as
that of Mundas to northern tribes. The name of Kirana means man of mixed race and
Suvarnas are barbarian Suvaras or Suars. In the 7th
century, the king of this country was Sasangha
who is famed as a great persecutor of Buddhists. (AGI, p 430)
5. Odra or Orissa: The province was 1167 miles in circuit,
extended to Hughli and Damuda rivers on the north and to the Godavari in the
south. But the old province, Odra-desa was
limited to the valley of Mahanadi and to the lower course of Suvarnriksha river. It comprised the
present districts of Kuttak and Sambhalpur and a portion of Medinipur. The city
of Puri is famous for the Jagannath temple. The ancient metropolis of the
country was Kotah on the bank of
Mahanadi river. In sixth century, Raja Jajati Kesari established a new capital
called Jajatipura (the modern Jajipura). Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills have
Buddhist caves. (AGI p.431-2).
6. Ganjam:
The district was about 167 miles in circuit and the territory was confined to
the small valley of Risikulya river. Ganjam, the old capital, was situated near
Chilka lake and ocean. The king in the seventh century might be Lalitendra
Kesari who was later defeated by Harsha Vardhana. Afterwards it was annexed to
Orissa. (AGI, p 432-4).
Southern
India
Southern India
comprised whole of the peninsula to the south of the Tapti and Mahanadi rivers
from Nasik on the west to Ganjam on the east. It was divided into nine separate
kingdoms, exclusive of Ceylon which was not considered as belonging to India.
They were: Kalinga, Kosala, Andhra, Dhnakataka, Jorya, Dravida, Malakuta,
Konkan and Maharashtra.
1.
Kalinga
: The
kingdom was 833 miles in circuit. Its boundary in the south might be river
Godavari, to its west Andhra and to the north Ganjam. Its original capital was
Srikakulam. Mahendragiri mountan rage
which retained its name from the Mahabharata times is its special feature.
Rajahmundry was the capital of Vengi , the eastern branch of the Chalukyas.
During the life time of the Buddha, Kalinga was famous for the manufacture of
fine muslins. After the death of Buddha, the king of Kalinga obtained one of
the teeth of the Buddha, over which he built a magnificent Stupa at Dantapura, says Cunningham (AGI, p 436-8).
2.
Kosala
: The
ancient Kosala might be the present province of Berar, or Gondwana. The kingdom
of Kosala was 1000 miles in circuit and Cunningham opines that it was bounded
by Ujjain on the north, by Maharashtra on the west, by Orissa on the east and
by Andhra and Kalinga on the south. The position of its capital is difficult to
be fixed among the major cities of the province, Chanda, Nagpur, Amaravati and
Elichpur which was stated to be nearly 7 miles in circuit. (AGI, p 438-44).
3.
Andhra:
The
province of Andhra was in 500 miles in circuit and frontiers are not mentioned.
Cunningham presumes that the Godavari river to the north and east. It is also
limit of the Telugu language towards the north. To the west, it meets the
kingdom of Maharashtra. The territory cannot have extended beyond the Manjira
branch of the Godavari to Bhadrachalam on the south-east. Andhras are mentioned
by Pliny that they possessed thirty fortified cities. The Chinese pilgrim
states that language of the people of Andhra was different from that of Central
India but the forms of the written characters were the most part the same. The
old Nagari alphabet was still in use.
Cunningham infers that the Telugu characters which are found in inscriptions of
the tenth century had not been adopted in the south. (AGI, p 446).
4.
Danakakotta:
Cunningham
identifies the place with Dharanikota or
Amaravati on the banks of Krishna river.[lxx]
The province was 1000 miles in circuit. The boundaries of the province as
nearly as possible with the limits of the Telugu language which extended to
Kulbarga and Pennakonda on the west, and to Tripati and Pulikat lake on the
south, Andhra and Kalinga on the north and on the east by the sea.
5.
Choliya
or Joriya: This
is a small district of 400 miles in circuit. The country was not properly
identified.
6.
Dravida:
The country was 1000 miles in circuit and its capital Kanchi[lxxi]
was 5 miles in circuit.
7.
Malakuta
or Madura: The country was the southern end of the peninsula. The country was 500 miles in circuit.
Cunnigham infers that Madura might be the capital city of the province.
8.
Konkana
:
The country was 833 miles in circuit. It might be including the whole line of
coast from Bombay to Mangalor and might have extended inland far beyond the
line of Western Ghats.
9.
Maharashtra:
The province was 1000 miles in circuit. The tract had Malwa on the north,
Kosala and Andhra on the east, Konkana on the south and the sea on the west.
Its capital was 5 miles in circuit. Cunningham is inclined to suggest the
Paithan or Pratishthana might be its
capital.
Cunningham
adds a small note on Ceylon at the end of narration though it was not
considered a part of India. Hwen Thsang wanted to visit Ceylon because Buddhism
was popularized there during Asoka’s reign. Buddhism was State religion for
some time. But he heard that there was political trouble caused by the assassination
of the reigning king. So, he changed his mind and took return path through
Konkan and Maharashtra and North-west, back to his country. The ancient name of the island was Sinhala. The meaning of its original
name is Ratna-dwipa. The Greeks
called Taprobane. The island,
according to Sir Emerson Tennet, is about 650 miles in circuit being 271 ½
miles in length from north to south and 137 ½ miles from east to west.
Cunningham states that the Ceylonese were barbarians until the landing of
Vijaya in 543 BC; and there is no satisfactory evidence of any Aryan connection
or intercourse before the visit of Mahendra, the son of Asoka, in BC 242. (AGI
p 472).
Cunningham
added three Appendices to his book : A) Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang’s
Travels, B) Measures of Distance and C) Correction of Ptolemy’s Eastern Longitudes
followed by very useful Index.
Some
Observations:
Alexander
Cunningham was distinguished as the first Archaeological Surveyor officially
appointed by the English Government in India after his retirement from military
service. Later, he was designated as the Director of the Department of
Archaeology. While he was in military service as Engineer he had the advantage
of surveying the frontier provinces for military purposes. He lamented that
many ancient sites (mounds) were dug indiscriminately for laying roads in the
frontier regions for military purposes and used the mud, bricks and stones in
the constructions. The north-west region where Hindu kingdoms and culture existed
centuries before Christ came under barbarian tribes from central Asia in the
medieval times. The towns and monasteries were destroyed beyond recognition. He
found that most of the Buddhist structures –stupas,
chaityas and universities, were razed to ground during the Muslim
invasions. Muslim conquerors treated the Buddhism equally idolatrous with the
Hinduism. They persecuted both. He came
across many such ruins of old sites during his general survey and took interest
in the archaeological exploration of these regions simultaneously. He could
also seek cooperation of his colleagues in the military service in locating
preserving certain sites. He must be remembered for long for preserving some of
the sites. He sustained his interest in history throughout even after he
returned to his motherland. His contribution to numismatics is also
praiseworthy. The present work is a comprehensive one in which he tried to
point out various ancient towns on the modern Indian map.
The
Greeks did pioneering work in mapping India according to the information they
collected from different sources, while the Arabs and Chinese did visit India
and travelled in this country. Greeks’ personal acquaintance of India was
mostly limited to north-west. Among them, only Megasthenese visited the kingdom
of Magadha but probably his movements were confined to its capital city,
Pataliputra. He, it seems, was not permitted to travel freely in India, as the
‘Artha Sastra’ had stipulated many conditions on the movements of foreigners in
the Mauryan Empire.[lxxii]
Arabs’ personal knowledge was also mostly
limited to the West Coast and the Sindh area whereas Chinese pilgrims had
toured extensively in India. Among the Chinese, Yuan Chwang (Hwen Thsang)
toured entire India and recorded valuable information about our country,
people, religious practices, commerce and trade.
Cunningham
adopted the classical five-division scheme for his presentation on historical
geography of India. What we call, today, the Indian sub-continent including
Kabul, Afghanistan etc in the north-west upto Burma in the east, including
Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet and Ladakh was then known as ‘one’ India. It has no
comparison to the present truncated Republican State. Cunningham’s work on
Northern India and Central India was quite exhaustive, but, his description of
other divisions was cursory. He made the best use of the Greek notices as
primary while describing north-west India
which he called Northern India and took Yuan-Chwang’s travel account as corroborative
evidences to identify the ancient towns and the ancient sites in that region. The
Central India possessed numerous Buddhist sites and includes the Buddhist
Circuit also because the life and career of Buddha was mostly connected to this
region. Here, Cunningham took the travelogue of Yuan Chwang as primary and the
Greek notices as corroborative evidence for his findings. Cunningham also
referred to Sanskrit and Pali sources to some extent in identifying the names
of certain places. Indian place names are, of course, difficult to spell or pronounce in a foreign
tongue. Greek and Chinese languages are totally dissimilar to each other.
Cunningham had great difficulty in identifying the place names from both Greek
and Chinese sources. He took the Sanskrit and Pali versions to spell the names
properly. But, he, being a foreigner, might have found it difficult to read the
names and to interpret them. At times, he had to depend on the early literal
translations of the Puranas and other Indian literature. The similarities and
the origin of Indian names might have been more difficult for him to interpret
and connect them with historical events.
Yuan Chwang being a Buddhist monk was basically
interested in the centers of Buddhism and the holy places connected to it.
While he was reporting on the communities other than his own Faith, his
prejudices against them are quite evident. He paid very high tributes to King
Harsha Vardhana who was his patron and whom he called the Lord of (entire)
North India. Obviously, he did not report much on the other divisions of India
– Western, Eastern and Southern India—where the reigning kings were mostly
Hindu. Cunningham has literally walked in the foot-steps of the Chinese pilgrim
in his narration and so his work is also deficient with regard to those three
divisions of India. Apart from that, he had personally travelled only in North
India and Narmada River was his boundary in the south. So he had no personal
knowledge about the south of Vindhyas according to himself.[lxxiii]
Though
Cunningham has not taken the geographical information available in the Puranas,
Itihasas, Kavyas etc, as primary for his work, he endeavoured to identify the
remote antiquity of some of the places like Mulasthana
(Multan) known as Kashyapapura, the
capital of Kasyapa Prajapati, father of Daityas
and Adityas, in the north-west and the
place called Ukala Kshetra in the
Central India where Vishnu incarnated
in the form of a Boar to kill Hiranyaksha. This reminds us the fact, that
serious studies are most welcome from our native scholars to map-up ancient
India taking Indian sources as primary. Satguru Sivananda Murtyji[lxxiv]
suggests that we need to write the “Geography
of History”. We already have history in form of Puranas, Itihasas and
Kavyas. What we need is to identify our ancient historical events in their
proper geographical locations. This would enable us to authenticate our history
from Puranas. The modern Historical Method insists us to put our history in the
frame of two co-ordinates – the place and the time. If the place is fixed for a
Puranic earthly event[lxxv],
the modern techniques of Archaeology like Remote Sensing etc can be employed to
explore the sub-strata of the identified site and estimate the time frame of
the civilization and culture using modern scientific methods. The antiquity of
Hindu civilization based on its ancient cultural values, if proven, is not only
a pride of our Bharat but of the humanity at large. If efforts are continued in
this direction, Cunningham’s work will serve us as a torch-bearer.
Appendix
Figure 1
Hwen Thsang's travels in North-West
Figure 2
Alexander's expedition in Sindh
Figure 3
Hwen Thsang's travels in Gangetic Doab
Figure 4
Hwen Thsang's travels in Bihar
Figure 5
Hwen Thsang's travels on the East Coast
Notes:
[i] Former
Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences and Professor of History (retired), Kakatiya
University, Warangal. Email:
ysudershanrao@gmail.com.
Blog :
ysudershanrao@blogspot.com,
Mobile +91 9849450116. The
author expresses his gratitude to
Satguru Sivananda Murtyji
(Bhimunipatnam) for suggesting the theme and for His gracious guidance
throughout.
[ii]
It is said that Vasco de Gama met with one Ibn Majid and found at him lots of
maps and marine devices. The Arabs were well connected with India by sea for
trade. (http://www.muslimstoday.info/content/story/arabs-founders-geography)
[iii]
According to Strabo, Alexander “caused the whole country to be described by men
well acquainted with it” –Geographia –ii. 1.6
[iv]
Seafaring of Arabs is referred to in the ancient writings of Strabo and
Ptolemy. But, only in the middle ages, the Arab Geographers were known to be
well-versed in the knowledge of paths, roads and routes.
(http://www.muslimstoday.info/content/story/arabs-founders-geography)
[vi] The ASI, Government of India has recently published
23 volumes of his reports which run into some five thousand pages. These
provide valuable insight into the history of India, particularly about Hindu
places of worship which were either demolished completely and
masjids and
dargahs
built there on or those converted to
masjids and
dargahs after
removing symbols and signs of Hindu worship.
[vii]
A list of his complete works along with a summary of his biographical memoir is
given in the present book, (xiii-xvi).
[x]
See
preface to the original edition
of the book under review.
[xi] ‘
Etude sur la Geographie et les populations
primitives du Nord-ouest de l’Inde, d’apres les Hymnes Vediques’, Paris,
1850.
[xiii]
Strabo’s Geographia, ii.1.6
[xiv]
Hwen Thsang’s travels extended from 629 AD to 645 AD. He visited most of the
great cities throuout the country from Kabul and Kashmir to the mouths of
Ganges and Indus, and from Nepal to Kanchipura near Madras. He entered Kabul
from the north-west, via Bomian, about the end of May 630 AD and returned to
China crossing Hindu Kush about 644 AD.
[xv] A
Cunningham,
Ancient Geography of India, Cosmo
2007, p.3. Hereafter, the page numbers
of references from this book are shown in the text or footnotes as (AGI with
relevant page numbers).
[xvi]
However, Ptolemy’s description of India is completely distorted. Instead of
showing the acute angle formed by the meeting of the two coasts of the
Peninsula at Cape Comorin is changed to a single coastline, running almost in a straight from the mouth of the
Indus to the mouth of the Ganges. (AGI, p7)
[xvii]
1 British mile is 8.70827286 stadia.
[xviii]
Elphinston,
History of India, intro-
p.1. (AGI, p2.)
[xix] Journal of Asiatic Society, Bengal, (AGI,
p.4)
[xx]
Chinese sources say that India was known to them in the second century BC
during the reign of Emperor Wuti of later Han dynasty. It was then called
Yuan-tu or
Yin-tu that is Hindu,
Shintu,
or
Sindhu. Later it is known as
Thian-tu. India was sometimes called
Magadha, after the name of its best
known and richest province and sometimes the “kingdom of
Brahmanas” after the name of its principal inhabitants. (AGI, 9)
[xxi]
It is found in the official records of Thang dynasty. But, the earliest notice
of it could be found in the year 477 AD when the king of Western India
sent an ambassador to China and again
only a few years later (502 and 504 AD), the
kings of Northern and Southern India followed suit according to their
official records. (AGI, 8&9).
[xxii]
Ptolemy called this city
Kabura or
Ortospana as capital city which was supplanted by Alexandria during the Greek
domination and restored by the Indo-Scythian princes. (AGI p16)
[xxiii]
In Scythian, ‘
ku’ means water.
Historians of Alexander also noticed the River Kophes.
[xxiv]
It was also known as
Ajuna , may be a
corrupt form of
Ujjana in Pali and
Udyana (garden) in Sanskrit. M Vivien de St Martin states that
Udyanapura was te old name of
Nagarahara. (AGI p39)
[xxv]
Strabo called it
Gandharitis and Ptolemy
Gandarae. The Chinese pilgrims
called it
Kien-to-lo.
[xxvi]
Fa Hian called it
Fo-lu-sha or
Parasha.
[xxvii]
Chinese pilgrim Sung Yun says “amongst the topes of western countries this is
the first”. (AGI p67)
[xxviii]
They were
Tangi, Shirpao, Umrazai,
Turangzai, Usmanzai, Rajur, Charsada and Parang. They extend over a
distance of 15 miles.
[xxix]
Ujjana was the Pali form of Udyana.
[xxx]
Subhavastu or Suvastu (Sanskrit) and Suastus of Arian.
[xxxi]
Majjhima in Pali. Madhyantika was the
name of the teacher who was sent to spread Buddhism in Kashmir and the
Himavanta country after the Third Synod conducted during Ashoka’s reign.
[xxxii]
The length of the province along the river Indus from east to west was about
150 miles and breadth about 80 miles
from the mountains of Deoseb to the Karakoram range.
[xxxiii]
Fa-Hian called it
Po-na or
Bana.
[xxxiv]
Hwen Thsang estimated the length of the circuit to be 1166 miles.
[xxxv]
Kamraj was the northern half of the
valley and
Meraj the southern half
.
[xxxvi]
Founded by Asoka (BC 263 to 226).
[xxxvii]
Rajatarangani records that Jaloka,
son of Asoka, built this temple. The hill was then known as
Jyeshteswara. (AGI p81).
[xxxviii]
A strange story is recorded in the Muslim chronicles (Ferishta and Abul Fazl),
a copper plate inscription was found in the debris of a Siva temple destroyed
by Sikandar which reads that the demolition was predicted that the temple would
be destroyed after the expiration of 1100 years by a person named Sikandar.
[xxxix]
Fa Hian called it
Chu-sha-ski-lo means
‘severed head’ based on the legend that the Buddha betowed his head in alms at
this place to a tiger. A
Stupa was built at the site of the ‘head-gift’. The hill range
is named
Margala which means idiomatically, ‘cutting the neck’.
[xl]
Hwen Thsang called it
Ta-cho-shi-la. He
visited in 630 AD and again in 643 AD. (AGI p92).
[xli] Ketaksh might be corrupted form of
Swetavasa or ‘the white robes’ or
Khetavasa . Cunningham says that could
be the holy place for the white-robed Jain sect or Buddhists. Brahmins also
claimed the place for themselves as it was the place where ‘Siva’s eyes rained
when he heard the death of his wife, Sati’.
[xliv]
Ptolemy’s
Kaspaire (
AGI p199)
[xlv]
Hwen Thsang called it
Meu-lo-san-pu-lo which
M. Vivien de St Mrtin transcribed as
Mulasthanipura.
(AGI p197).
[xlvi]
The name might mean “Middle City” to denote it as the capital city. (AGI p210)
[xlvii]
A detailed account of the heroic resistance to Alexander by the Brahman cities
were added by Cunningham (AGI pp225-234)
[xlviii]
Hwen Thsang called it
Kiu-che-lo and its capital,
Pi-lo-mi-lo. (AGI p262).
[xlix]
Hwen Thsang called it
Fa-la-pi. It is
called
Surashtrene by Ptolemy and the
author of ‘Periplus’.
[l]
Karka was fifth in descent from Govinda.
[li]
This Govinda might be the king of Baroda who occupied Ballabhi and
reestablished the old family.
[lii] Mo-hi was identified with
Mahi or
Makwa.
[liii]
Hwen Thsang called it ,
Po-lu-kie-cho-po.
[liv]
Parasu Rama is said to have split blood of the
Kshatriyas in this place. (AGI, p.279). At this place , great
battle took place at this place between Kauravas and Pandavas. The place is
connected with many historical and puranic events some of them are detailed here (AGI p281-283).
[lv]
See
Kurukshetra Mahatmya and Vishnu
Purana
[lvi]
May be the present Rohikhand.
[lvii]
Please note wherever the ‘present’ is
used in the text, it denotes the times of Cunningham , the late 19
th
century.
[lviii]
North
Panchala was Rohilkhand. And
that of South
Panchala was
Kampilya. Drona defeated Drupada and
kept North panchala for himself and allowed Drupada to rule South Panchala.
(AGI p305).
[lix]
Cunningham takes this date for the Mahabharata War.
[lx]
The mound is 3250 ft in breadth at base, about 44 ft high and 2 miles in
circuit.
[lxi]
Haya Mukha means Horse-face. But Cunningham suggests it could also be
Ayomukha
which means iron-face which could the name of one of the
Danavas. (AGI, p 326).
[lxii]
Bakkula was born to a mother in Kosambi when she was bathing in river Jumna.
This infant was swallowed by a fish and the fixh was caught and sold to a noble
family in Benaras. The child was boughtup by the family. After some time
knowing about this, the original mother went to Benaras and claimed the child.
The matter was then referred to the king who judged that the child was
Bakula (belonging to two
kulas or castes) and so he belonged to
two mothers. (AGI, p 332)
[lxiii]
Visakha episode is described by
Cunningham in detail. (AGI, p338-42).
[lxiv]
Cunningham gives a detailed account of this
incident of Buddha’s life. (AGI p
357-61)
[lxv]
Metamorphically called, “to turn the Wheel of Dhamma (Law)”.
[lxvi]
The eight clans of Vrijis:
Vaisali,
Kesariya, Janakpur, Navandgarh, Simrun, Darbanga, Puraniya and Motihari. (AGI,
p 378).
[lxvii]
The chief places are
Buddha-Gaya,
Kukkutapada, Rajagriha, Kusagarapura, Nalanda, Indrasilagruha and
Kapatika monastery.
[lxviii]
The Sanskrit name is Vardhamana. (AGI
p404)
[lxix]
Jajhoti is a corrupt form of
Yajur-hota who
follow Yajur Veda.
[lxx]
Cunnigham discusses at length to come to this understanding with regard to
fixing Dhanakakkota. (AGI pp 447-459).
[lxxi]
Kanchipuram or
Cajeevaram in
Sanskrit.
[lxxii]
His report on the native government and its organization in general and the
governance of capital City in
particular differ from the ‘Artha Sastra’
[lxxiii]
A few maps showing the expedition of Alexander in Sindh and the travels of Hwen
Thsang from the book are given in the appendix as ready reference
[lxxiv]
Mahamahopadhyaya, Dr K Sivananda
Murty (Guruji), ‘Anandavan’,
Bheemunipatnam, A.P. India, (531163)
[lxxv]
Puranas speak of the events happening at earthly plane and other non-earthly
planes also. But History is concerned with the life of human beings on earth.
Historical Geography of Ancient India
(The ‘Hall of Time’ Digest)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Title of the
Book: Ancient Geography of India
Name of the
Author: Major General Sir Alexander Cunningham (A.
Cunningham)
Publication:
(First Published in 1871)
Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 2007
Pages: 501, Price: Rs 595/-
ISBN: 81-307-0619-9
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Introduction:
Ancient Indian literature –Vedic, Puranic, Itihasic,
Jain, Buddhist, etc—is replete with valuable information regarding this planet Earth,
the Solar System, and the Brahmanda. The Puranas also indicate existence of
numerous similar Brahmandas beyond ours. The knowledge about this Universe is
handed down to us by our great seers of yore. Besides the spiritual pursuits of
the seers who ‘received’ the knowledge, common man’s geographical exploration
of this planet is also clearly seen from the Itihasas, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, which we may call ‘evolved’ knowledge. These Itihasas also
vouchsafe that the men had the knowledge of higher worlds and that they had live-interaction
with the closer worlds (lokas) –
higher and nether worlds-- like, swarga, yaksa, gandharva, kinnera, naga, patala
etc.
The knowledge of these Bharateeya Itihasas was widely spread throughout
the world including Americas as claimed by some archaeologists. India had a brisk trade with as far as Italy
in the West, Africa, Arabia and South-East Asia in the proto-historic period
dating back to at least 5000 years from now. China and India, being close
neighbors, were engaged in regular trade and commerce since centuries before
Christ. Buddhist sources tell us that the Indian traders were having trade
connections with far off lands braving the high seas. Indian coast was blessed
with many natural sea-ports. India was well known for its ship-building
industry till as late as 15th century when Vasco de Gama reached
Indian Coast, Calicut, by circumnavigating the Cape of Good Hope[ii].
India had been the most sought after country by the foreigners for its
richness in knowledge, culture and wealth. Perhaps, that proved to be more a
bane than a boon when we look to our past recorded history from about 3rd
century BC. Alexander’s invasion had stimulated the Greeks’ geographical
exploration[iii]. The earlier trade
connections facilitated the study of Indian geography by the Greeks and later the
Arabs[iv]. Patrokles who was the satrap of north-east Syria collected
information regarding India and the Eastern Provinces. Thales, Pythagoras,
Strabo, Eratosthenes, Amyntas, Megasthenes and several others explored India. Pliny and Ptolemy (first and second century
AD) dealt the Geography of India. Periplus
of Erithrean Sea by an anonymous writer of the first century AD contains
the best account of commerce between Red Sea and India. Among Arabs in the
middle ages, mention may be made of Ibn Hardazabah who wrote the first book of
Islamic geography, Abu al-Faraj Kudamat Ibn Jafar writer of ‘Al-Haraj’, al
Masudi, and several other Arabs who were interested in geographical studies.
After Company’s rule was well established in India, British officers took
interest in the ancient Indian geography commenting and interpreting classical
literature, both indigenous and foreign, from the latter half of 18th
century. M. D’Anville (1753-75), Rennel (1783-93), Mannert (1797), Dr Vincent
who translated the Periplus, showed
interest in this field. Col. Francis Wilford will be remembered for his first
serious attempt to study the ancient geography of India collecting material from Indian sources. M Viven de
Saint-Martin treated in a masterly manner the Vedic, the classical and the
Chinese sources of ancient geography of India and Central Asia. Among those
Indologists who worked on the ancient geography of India, Sir Alexander
Cunningham, deserves a special mention. His Ancient
Geography of India has become a standard treatise on the subject. An
attempt is made herein to give a brief review of this monumental work on Indian
Geography.
About
the Author:
Sir Alexander Cunningham, (1814-
1893), British army officer (Engineering Corps) turned archaeologist had excavated many sites
in India, including Sārnāth and Sānchi, and served as the first Director of the
Indian Archaeological Survey.
At 19, he joined the Bengal Engineers and
spent 28 years in the British military service in India, retiring as Major General
in 1861. Early in his career he met James Prinsep, a British numismatist, who ‘ignited’
his interest in Indian history and coins. In 1837 Cunningham excavated at
Sārnāth, outside Vārānasi (Banaras), one of the most sacred Buddhist shrines,
and carefully prepared drawings of the sculptures. In 1850 he excavated Sānchi,
site of some of the oldest surviving buildings in India. In addition to a study
of the temple architecture of Kāshmir (1848) and a work on Ladākh (1854), he
published The
Bhilsa Topes (1854), the
first serious attempt to trace Buddhist history through its architectural
remains.
After his retirement in 1861 from military
service, he submitted a Memorandum to Lord Canning, the Governor General of India, in which he
outlined the object of the organization of Archaeological Survey of India. He
wrote, "It would rebound equally to the honour of the British Government
to institute a careful and systematic investigation of all existing monuments
of India." [v] Later, he agreed
to become the Director of the Indian Archaeological Survey and remained with it
until it was dissolved (1865). Cunningham's duties were defined, in a
Resolution, “to superintend a complete search over the whole country and
prepare a systematic record and description
of all archaeological and other remains that are unique for
their antiquity, historical interest or beauty.” Exploration and excavations
were the primary functions of the Department between 1861-1885. Cunningham
toured almost the entire length and breadth of North India up to Narmada river.
He submitted detailed findings about a large number of monuments and historical
sites.[vi]
He resumed
his post when the Archaeological Survey Department was restored (1870) and
during the next 15 years carried out many archaeological explorations among the
ruins of northern India. He published The
Ancient Geography of India (1871),
the first collection of the edicts of Emperor Aśoka of 3rd-century-bc and The Stûpa of Barhut (1879). Over the years he gathered a
large collection of Indian coins, the choicest of which were purchased by the
British Museum. After his retirement from the survey (1885), he devoted himself
to Indian numismatics and wrote two books on the subject.[vii] He was knighted in 1887.[viii]
The work
done by Cunningham received a greater fillip during the Viceroyalty of Lord
Curzon (1899-1905). His interest in Archaeology resulted in the passing of the
Ancient Monuments Preservations Act in 1904. In his address to the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, he observed: "We have a duty to our forerunners, as
well as to our contemporaries and to our descendants, nay, our duty to the two
latter classes in itself demands the recognition of an obligation to the
former, since we are the custodians for our own age of that which has been
bequeathed to us by an earlier, and since posterity will rightly blame us if,
owing to our neglect they fail to reap the same advantages that we have been
privileged to enjoy".[ix]
Cunningham was succeeded by Sir John Marshall who also did yeoman service for
the promotion of archaeology in India.
About the
Book:
The book, Ancient Geography of India (AGI), covers
the Buddhist period including the campaigns of Alexander and the travels of
Hwen-Thsang (Yuan Chwang). The book
describes the geography of – Afghanistan, Kashmir and Panjab of Northern India;
Sind, Gurjara and Vallabhi (Balabhi) of Western India; Gangetic plains starting
from Sthaneswara to Magadha including Malwa and Ujjain of Central India:
Kamarupa to Ganjam of Eastern India; and from Kalinga to Maharashtra including
Andhra, Dravida and Konkan of Sothern India. Ceylon is also included. Separate
notes on (A) Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang’s Travels, (B) Measures of
Distances, Yojana, Li, Krosa and (C)
Correction of Error in Ptolemy’s Eastern Longitudes are appended. Further, the
book contains thirteen valuable maps of ancient India showing the locations of
ancient sites, villages and towns. The author dedicated this work “to Major
General Sir H C Rawlison, K. C. B. who has himself done so much to throw light
on the Ancient Geography of Asia”.
Cunningham says, “I have not undertaken this work without
much previous preparation”. His travels “ have been very extensive throughout
the length and breadth of northern India, from Peshawar and Multan near the
Indus, to Rangoon and Prome on the Irawadi, and the Kashmir and Ladakh to the
mouth of the Indus and the banks of Narbada” during his long service of three
decades in India. When he was employed as Archaeological Surveyor after his
retirement from the military service, he studied ancient Indian geography and
he was “signally successful in fixing the sites of many of the most famous
cities of ancient India”. A few of the most prominent of his discoveries are : Aornos, Taxila, Sngola,Srughna,Ahichhatra,
Bairat, Sakisa, Sravasti, Kosambi, Padmavati, Vaisali, and Nalanda.[x]
On
the lines of the colonial periodisation of
Indian history, he periodised the geography of India as the Brahminical, the Buddhist, and the Muhammadan on
the basis of ‘prevailing religious and political character of the period it
embraces’. Brahminical period “would
trace the gradual extension of the Aryan race over Northern India”. The Buddhist period “would embrace the
rise, extension, and decline of the Buddhist faith from the era of Buddha to
the conquests Mahmud of Ghazni”. The Muhammadan
period “would embrace the rise and extension of Muhammadan power from the
time of Mahmud of Ghazni to the battle of Plassey”. M. Vivien de Saint Martin’s
valuable essay[xi]
covers ancient geography as elicited from the Hymns of the Vedas. H H Wilson in
his Ariana Antiqua and Lassen, in his
Pentapotamia Indica, refer to the
ancient geography of North-west India. M. Stanislas Julien’s translation of the
Life and Travels of the Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, helps identifying most of
the ancient Buddhist sites. But exact locations were not pinpointed. Similarly,
Muhammadan period gives us ample material from their numerous histories of the
Muhammadan States of India but no authoritative work was attempted.
Cunningham
chose the Buddhist period for his work “to
determine with absolute certainty the sites of many of the most important
places in India”.[xii]
His ‘chief guides’ were Alexander and Hwen Thsang. Alexander “caused the whole
country to be described by men well acquainted with it”.[xiii] Patrokles who held the east satrapies of the
Syrian empire under Seleukas Nikator had further improved this information.
These accounts were confirmed by Megasthenes who had actually visited
Pataliputra. Giving a rapid survey of
Hwen Thsang’s travels in India[xiv],
Cunnigham emphatically said that the Chinese pilgrim was not surpassed by any
one in his extensive travels in India. He felt, “the pilgrimages of this
Chinese priest forms an epoch of as much interest and importance for the
Ancient History and Geography of India, as the expedition of Alexander the
Great”. He also found Ptolemy’s account (150 AD) more valuable for constructing ancient
geography of India as “it belongs to a period just midway between the date of
Alexander’s campaign (330 BC) and the travels of Hwen Thsang (630 AD).
The
Subject Matter:
The close
agreement of the dimensions, given by the Indian informants to the Greeks, with
the actual size of the country was so accurate that Cunningham was greatly
surprised that “the Indians, even at their early date in their history, had a
very accurate knowledge of the form and extent of their native land.”[xv]
Form
and Extent of India:
Erotosthenes
and other Greek writers[xvi]
described India as a rhomboid, or
unequal quadrilateral, in shape, with the Indus on the west, the mountains on
the north, and the sea on the south and he west. The shortest side was on the
west with 13000 stadia or 1493 British miles.[xvii]
The length of the country from the west to east (i.e. Indus to the mouth of
Ganges) is 16000 stadia or 1838 British miles. The eastern coast from the mouth
of Ganges to the Cape of Comorin was reckoned at 16000 stadia or 1838 British
miles and the southern coast from Cape of Comorin to the mouth of the Indus was
19000 stadia or 2183 British miles. Megasthenes estimated the distance from
southern sea to the Caucusus at 20,000 stadia or 2298 British miles while the
modern count from Cape of Comorin to the Hindu Kush is about 1950 miles
according to Elphinston[xviii]
but when converted into road distance it counts at 2275 miles. Diodorus says,
“the whole extent of India from east to west is 28000 stadia and from north to
south 32000 stadia,” (AGI, p4) and altogether about 60000 stadia or 6890
British miles.
Wilford[xix]
quoting from the epic Mahabharat describes India as an equilateral triangle,
which was divided into four smaller equal triangles. The apex of triangle is
Cape of Comorin and the base is formed by the line of the Himalaya Mountains.
Cunnigham taking clue from this, tried to draw three smaller equilateral
triangles within the larger triangle taking a common base of line from Dwaraka
in Gujarat in the west to Ganjam on the east coast and projecting the apexes to
north-west, north-east and Cape of Comorin in the south and the remaining
territory Gangetic plain form the fourth triangle with Himalayan rage as its
base. These four triangular divisions would form the larger equilateral
triangle of India as described by the epic Mahabharat. Cunningham, however,
presumes the date of composition of the epic in the first century AD. He holds
that the countries immediately to the west of the Indus belonged to the
Indo-Scythians may be included ‘very properly within the actual boundaries of
India’.
Brihat
Samhita describes India as having nine divisions (Nava-Khanda). Kern, in his preface to Brihat Samhita, states that Varahamihira’s chapter on Geography was
‘almost’ on the lines of Parasaratantra which
was much earlier to Brihat Smhita.
This description was followed later by the authors of the Puranas. These nine
divisions are : Panchala (central), Magadha (east), Kalinga (south-east), Avanta (south),
Anarta (south-west), Sindhu-Souvira (west), Harahaura (north-west), Madra (north) and Kouninda (north-east). Cunningham compares this list with the lists
given in the Puranas, and finds that “all the lists are substantially the same”
despite some ‘sundry repetitions and displacements of names, as well as, many
various readings’. Brahmanda and Markandeya Puranas also state the districts in
each of the nine divisions. Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas agree with
Mahabharata in describing five divisons in detail. Perhaps Mahabharata had
taken only five major divisions into consideration to describe India. The nine
divisions were: Kurus and Panchalas (central), Kamarupa (Assam), Pundras, Kalingas and Magadhis (south), Sourastras, Suras, Abhiras, Arbudas, Karushas, Malvas, Souviras, Saindhavas
(west) and Hunas, Salwas, Sahalas,
ramos, Ambashias and Parasthas (north). Wilson, referring to
Vishnu Purana, states that the Hindus “likened their native country to the
lotus-flower, the middle being Central India, and the eight surrounding petals
being the other divisions”. (AGI, p11)
Chinese sources[xx] of
seventh century AD also mention only five divisions of India called the East,
West, North, South and Central, usually styled as “Five Indies”[xxi].
The same division was adopted by Hwen Thsang in the seventh century. Fah-kai-lih-to, a Chinese work,
describes, “this country in shape is narrow towards the south and broad towards
the north”, and adds that “the people’s faces are the same shape as the
country”. (AGI, p9). Hwen Thsang estimated the circumference of the country to
be 90,000 li or 15,000 miles (six li = one mile) which is too high and
other Chinese sources say it is 30,000 li or 5000 miles which is too small.
Hwen
Thsang notices about eighty kingdoms -- small and large or sovereign and
tributary – in India. In Northern India, the major kingdoms were: Kapisa with its capital at Charikar or
Alexandria ad Caucasum, Kashmir with
its jurisdiction over Panjab, Taxila, and Taki
(Sangala) near Lahore ruling over the whole plains of Multan and Shorkot. The
Western Provinces were ruled by three kings of Sindh, Balabhi and Gurjjara. In Central and Eastern India, from
Sthaneswara to the mouth of Ganges, and from the Himalayan mountains to the
banks of the Narbada (River Narmada) and River Mahanadi, the entire country was
under the rule of Harshavardhan, the king of Kanoj. In the Southern India, the most powerful king was Pulakesin
II of Chalukyan dynasty and other important kingdoms were Maharashtra and Kosala,
Kalinga, Andhra, Konkan and Dhanakataka.
The
Himalayan range extending from north-west to north-east down the Indian archipelago and the sea on other three
sides form fixed natural boundaries. But its extant towards north-west was
changing frequently when powerful kings overstepped the limits. From the time
of Alexander down to a late period, greater part of Afghanistan was considered
part of India. Pliny did not consider the River Indus as India’s western
boundary. Seleukus Niketor gave the region
beyond Indus to Sandrokottus (Chandragupta Maurya) and his grand son
Asoka served as the viceroy there for some time. The north-western region was
endowed with many Buddhist monasteries as witnessed by Hwen Thsang and the
Chinese pilgrim says that the ruler of Kapisa was a Hindu. The eastern
Afghanistan, including the whole of Kabul valley, ‘must have been of Indian
descent, while the religion was pure Buddhism’. Mahmud of Ghazni persecuted
idolaters, both Hindus and Buddhists, and they were driven out of this country,
‘with them the Indian element’. Eastern Ariana which was Hindu and Buddhist
finally disappeared according to Cunningham. (AGI p14).
In
the Chinese arrangement, the middle and the four primary divisions only are
retained. Cunningham adopted the Chinese arrangement as he found it ‘simpler,
and more easily remembered’. The five divisions of India known as “Five Indies”
are:
1.
Northern
India comprising of Panjab, Kashmir, Afghanistan and the
states the west of River Saraswati,
2.
Western
India comprising of Sindh, western Rajputana, Kutch,
Gujarat and a portion on the lower course of River Narbada,
3.
Central
India comprising the Gangetic provinces from Thaneswar to the Delta and
from the Himalayas to the banks of River Narbada,
4.
Eastern
India comprising of Assam, Bengal, ,Delta of the River
Ganges together with Sambhalpur, Orissa and Ganjam, and
5.
Southern
India comprising the whole peninsula from Nasik and the
west and Ganjam in the east to the Cape of Comorin (Kanya Kumari).
Northern India
Northern India
consists of three major regions : I) Kaofu or Afghanistan, II) Kashmir and III)
Taki or Panjab. The provinces of Northern India beyond the Indus where Indian
language and religion were predominant till the rise of Mahmud of Ghazni.
I)
Kaofu or Afghanistan
Afghanistan
extended from Bamian and Kandahar on the west to the Bholan Pass on the south.
This large tract was divided into ten separate states or districts of which
Kapisa was the chief. The tributary states were Kabul and Ghazni in the west,
Lamghan and Jalalabad in the north, Swat and Peshawar in the east and Banu and
Opokien in the south. In the second century BC, the region was known as Kao-fu. Kao-fu was usually identified with Kabul[xxii].
The region would have been divided among Parthians (Kandahar), Indians (Swat,
Peshawar and Banu) and Saca Scythians (Kabul, Ghazni with Lamghan and
Jalalabad).
1. Kapisene or Opian
: According to Hwen Thsang, the state of Kapisene was about 666 miles in
circuit entirely surrounded by mountains; snowy mountains Po-lo-si-na to the north. Po-lo-si-na
corresponds to the Mount Paresh
or Aparasin of the ‘Zend Avesta’.
Pliny states that the ancient capital of Kapisene was C(K)apisa which was
destroyed by Cyrus. Ptolemy places Kapisa two and a half degrees north of Kabura
or Kabul. At the time of Hwen Thsang’s visit the capital was perhaps Opian. He says
it was “distinguished by its huge artificial mounds, from which, at various
times, copious antique treasures have been extracted”. (AGI p18) Pliny situates
Alexandria ‘at the very foot of Caucasus’ which agrees with the position of
Opian. The place was chosen by Alexander on account of its favourable site at
the parting of the three roads leading to Bactria. Another town of C(K)artena
(of Pliny) or Karsana (of Ptolemy) is also situated at the foot of the
Caucusus. It also seems to be in the
immediate vicinity of Alexandria. Cunningham identifies the town with
Begram which means ‘the city’. The decline of the city was caused by the
gradual desertion of the people, consequent on the transfer of the seat of
government to Ghazni after the
conquest of the country by Muhammadans.
Coins of the last Hindu Rajas were found in great number succeeded by the later
Muslim rulers. Cunningham infers ‘that the city began gradually to decay after
the Muhammadan conquest of Kabul by Sabuktugin towards the end of the tenth
century. Begram might have been finally destroyed by Chengiz Khan, ‘ a
merciless barbarian’. (AGI p26). Cunningham identifies another city, Cadrusi,
with the old site of Koratus six miles to the north-east of Begram where
remains of old city could be found consisting of mounds covered with fragments
of pottery and old coins. There are also remains of masonry works. Ptolemy
recorded some other peoples and towns which cannot be traced now. Hwen Thsang
says that the language was not Turki but their alphabet was that of Turks, but
as the king was Indian it is reasonable to infer that the language might be
Indian. (AGI p33)
2.
Kophene
or Kabul: Ptolemy mentions the district of Kabul. The length
of the district from the sources of the Helmand river to the Jagdalak Pass is
about 150 miles and its breadth from Istalif to the sources of the Logarh river
is about 70 miles. The district of Kophene, opines Cunningham, might have got
its name from the river which flowed through it. Kubha river is mentioned in the Vedas.[xxiii]
Ptolemy called these people Kabolita and their capital Kabura. Strabo and Pliny
called it Ortospana (Othrospanum of Pliny). H H Wilson suggests that its Sanskritized
name might be Urddhasthana (a high
place). Chinese pilgrim refers to Vardasthana
(district of Wardak tribe) while the province is identified as Hupian or Opian
at some distance south of Kabul. Cunningham concludes that both names refer to
the immediate neighbourhood of Kabul itself. The position of Ortospana,
Cunningham identifies with its Bala Hisar
(high fort). It was the old capital of the country before Macedonian
conquest. Even in the 10th century, it was believed “that a king was
not properly qualified to govern until he had been inaugurated at Kabul”. (AGI
p30). Alexander passed through a city on his way from Arachosia to the site of
Alexandria. This town, Cunningham thinks, was Nikaia (stone city) situated near
a lake which is peculiar in Northern India to Kabul and Kashmir. The lake was
named Astakia after a nymph whom Bacchus had abused. The city is also said to
have been called Indophon or ‘Indian
Killer’ on account of the victory which Bacchus had gained over the Indians on
this spot. Cunningham infers that the present popular name ‘Hindu-kush’ (Hindu killer) is attributed
to Indophon. Ptolemy mentions the
city of Kabura and the Kabolita with the towns of Arguda (Argandi), Locharna (Logarh)
and Bagarda along the river Kabul. In the seventh century,
the king of Kophene was a Turk, and the language of the country was different
from that of the people of Ghazni. Cunnigham conjectures on the lines of
Kapisene that the language of Kophene was some dialect of Turki, because the
king of the district was a Turk. (AGI p33)
3.
Archosia
or Ghazni: The kindom
was 1166 miles in circuit including the whole of south-western Afghanistan with
the exception of Kandahar. It had two capitals called Ho-si-na (Ghazni) and Ho-sa-lo. In the seventh century, the king of Ghazni,
who was a Buddhist, was descended from a long line of ancestors. Cunningham
infers that their speech ‘was most possibly Pushtu and that the people might
have been Afghans’. Ghazni might have been very flourishing by 7th
century. Hwen Thsang estimates the circuit of the town at 5 miles, but the
present day (Cunningham’s times) walled town is not more than one mile and a
quarter with sides varying from 200 to 400 yards in length, strengthened by
numerous towers. Ghazni was famous in the East as a place of strength and
security; and for this reason it got its name from Gaza means ‘treasury’ in old Persian. It was known for its
impregnability.
4.
Lan-po or Lamghan: This district was about 100 miles to the east
of Kapisene. Cunningham suggests that the original form of the name might be
the Sanskrit Lampaka. The district
was 166 miles in circuit according to Hwen Thsang with snowy mountains on the
north and black hills on the other three sides. It was formerly a separate
kingdom; but in the seventh century the royal family was extinct and became a
dependent on Kapisene.
5.
Nagarahara
or Jalalabad:
Nagarahara[xxiv]
was 100 miles in length (east to west) and 42 miles in breadth (from
south to north). It has Jagdalak Pass on the west, and the Khaibar Pass on the
east, Kabul river in the north and snowy maintains in the south. It was
Ptolemy’s Nagara which was situated
midway between Kabura and the Indus. The capital, Hilo, was only three quarters of a mile in circuit situated 2 miles
to the west of Jalalabad. There was a stupa
where Buddha’s skull bone was deposited. It was exhibited to those who
could pay a piece of gold. Situated at 5 miles south of Jalalabad, a tiny village
Hidda was well known for its large collection of Buddhist stupas. Cunningham conjectures that the name Hidda might have come
from the word Haddi which means bone.
(AGI p38). He states that the place containing the skull-bone of Buddha might
have been called Asthipura amongst the learned and Haddipura by the common
people. It is called Na-kie or Nagara by Fa Hian (5th
century) when it was an independent State. When Hwen Thsang (7th
century) visited it was under Kapisene and later successively became a part of
Brahman kingdom of Kabul and the Muhammadan Empire of Ghazni.
6.
Gandhara
or Parashawar: The district of Gandhara[xxv] lying
along the river Kophes, between the
Choaspes and the Indus. The district was 166 miles from east to west and 133
miles from north to south. The capital which they called Pu-lu-sha-pulo or Parashapura[xxvi]
could be identified with the present Peshawar which was known till the
Akbar’s times as Parashawar. Fa Hian states
that this city was 112 miles away from Nagarahara. Parashawar or Peshawar was
considered a holy town for Buddhists. The town was known for having venerated
‘begging bowl’ of Buddha and the holy Pipal
tree one and a half mile to the south-east of the city. The tree was 100ft
high. The tree was planted by Kanishka and the Chinese plgrim Sung-Yun called
it Pho-thi (Bodhi).There was an
enormous Stupa by the side of the
tree built by Kanishka. The Stupa was
400ft high and one quarter of a mile in circumference.[xxvii]
It contained a large quantity of relics of Buddha. The adjoining monastery had become celebrated amongst the
Buddhists through the fame of Arya-Parswika,
Manorhita and Vasubandhu , three
great leaders and teachers of Buddhism. It was still a flourishing center of
education till 10th century when Vira Deva of Magadha was sent to the “great
Vihara of Kanishka whre the best of teachers were to be found, and which was
famous for the quietism of its frequenters.” (AGI p68). The monastery was known
as Gor-Kotri (a Baniya’s house) where
“Jogis of the Hindus …. come from
great distances to cut off their hair and shave their beards” reported Babur in
his Memoirs.
The
other towns of the district cited by Ptolemy and Alexander’s historians are not
identified. So, Cunningham tried to follow the routes of Fa Hian and Hwen
Thsang and describes the sites visited by the Chinese pilgrims. Gandhara is
known from the times of Puranas and Epics. The ancient capital of Gandhara was Pushkalavati founded by Pushkara, son of
Bharata and the nephew of Rama according to Vishnu Purana. During the
Alexander’s times, it was a very large and populous country. Its king Astes
(Hasti) died in defence of his kingdom against the Greeks after a thirty-days
siege. There were “Eight Cities”[xxviii]
named as Hasthanagar seated close
together on the eastern bank of the lower Swat River. They might be originally
portions of a large town. The fort of Histr
stands on a mound above the ruins of the old town of Hashtanagar. General
Court says, “All the suburbs are scattered over with vast ruins”. (AGI p43). There
were remains of some early town known as Palodheri
(a village of Pali situated on dheri or mound of ruins). It was 40
miles from Pushkalavati. There is a great cave of Kashmiri Ghar in the hill to the north-east. In the cave of
hill Dantaloka, prince Sudana and his wife took refuge. U-to-kia-han-cha (Udakhanda of Julien), also known as Hund or Ohind is situated
on the north bank of the river Indus, about 15 miles above Attok. Cunningham
suggests that the original name of the town, Utakhanda or Ut-khand was
softened to Uhand or Bhithanda and then shortened to Uhand or Ohind,
which he believes was the capital of the Brahman kings of Kabul whose
dynasty was extinguished by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026 AD. He says that constant
encroachments of Indus river might have swept away major portion of the town. So-lo-tu-lo or Salatura or Lahor is 4
miles to Ohind, the birth place great
grammarian, Panini. Cunningham also tried to identify the towns like
Aoronos with Varanasi belonging to Raja Vara, adjacent to this there was Rani-gat above Nogram (or Queen’s rock)
where Raja Vara’s Rani used to sit daily on this high seat. He further
identifies Bazaria, Aoros and Embolima (Greek names) to Bazar,
Rani-gat and Ohind. Bazar was a large village situated on the banks of Kalpan or Kali-pani, a place of consequence for its trade and commerce. (AGI
p56). This district is known for ‘several renowned places of ancient India;
some celebrated in the stirring history of Alexander’s exploits, and others
famous in the miraculous legends of Buddha, and in the subsequent history of
Buddhism under the Indo-scythian prince Kanishka,’ says Cunningham. (AGI p41).
The town Pushkalavati was famous for a large Stupa which was erected on the spot where Buddha was said to have
made an ‘offering of his eyes’. (AGI p44).
7.
Udyana
or Swat: U-chang-na
or
Udyana[xxix]
is situated on the river Su-po-fa-su-tu[xxx]
presently known as Swat or Suat. The
country was described as highly irrigated and very fertile. Swat was second
only to the far-famed valley of Kashmir. Hwen Thsang estimates that it was 833
miles in circuit covering all the tributaries of River Swat. The legend of ‘the
hawk and the pigeon’ in which Buddha, to save a pigeon tears his own flesh and
offers to hawk, is connected to this region. Fa-Hian says that Buddha was then
a king named Shi-pi-ka or Sivika. The capital of Udyana was called
Mung-kie-li or Mangala. There was a celebrated wooden statue of future Buddha,
Maitreya, which was erected after 300 years of the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha. It was 100 ft high according Hwen
Thsang,erected by Madhyantika[xxxi]
school. (AGI p70)
8. Bolor or Balti: This district was 666
miles in circuit and its greatest length being from east to west.[xxxii]
The district was surrounded by snowy mountains and produced large quantity of
gold. Balti still is famous for gold washings.
9. Falana or Banu : Its
original name was Varana or Barna.[xxxiii]
It was 666 miles in circuit and placed to the south-east of Ghazni. The
district was chiefly composed of mountains and forests. The language of the
people resembled that of Central India.
10. Opokien or Afghansitan: Opokien
lies between Falana and Ghazni. Cunningham was inclined to identify Opokien or
Avakan with Afghan.
II
Kingdom of Kashmir
In
the seventh century, the kingdom was comprising of Kashmir valley and also the
whole of hilly country between the Indus and the Chenab to the foot of the Salt
range in the south. Its extended circuit was no less than 900 miles[xxxiv].
There were six sub-regions under this kingdom which were either directly ruled
from Kashmir or ruled by small chieftains owing allegiance to the king of
Kashmir. They were 1) Kashmir proper, 2) Urasa, 3) Taxila, 4) Sinhgapura, 5)
Punacha and 6) Rajapura.
1)
Kashmir:
Kashmir
proper is surrounded by lofty mountains which is 300 miles in circuit. From the
earliest times Kashmir was divided into two large districts of Kamraj
and Meraj.[xxxv]
Hwen Thsang sais that the king was Brahmanical while the queen patronized
Buddhism. Queen Anangalekha built a Vihara
after her name, Anangabhavana, while
the king built a temple to Vishnu, called after himself, Durlabha-swamina. The people of Kashmir were good looking but the
pilgrim commented on their character negatively. The principal ancient cities
of Kashmir were: Srinagari[xxxvi]
(the old capital), Pravarasenapura (new
capital), Khagendrapura and and Khunamusha, built before the time of
Asoka, Vijipura and Pantasok
(Asoka’s times), Surapura ,
restoration of ancient Kambuva,
Kanishkapura, Hushkapura, and Jushkapura
named after the three Indo-Scythian Princes by whom they were founded, Parihasapura, built by Lalitaditya, Padmapura, named after Padma, the
minister of Raja Vrihaspati, and Avantipura
, named after Raja Avanti Varmama. The oldest temple in Kashmir, Jyeshta Rudra, was found on the top of
the Takht-i-Suliman.[xxxvii]
Srinagari also had two Asokeswara temples
! Towards the end of 5th century, Pravarasena II built the new
capital, Pravarasenapura, and he also
built a temple for God Siva after his name, Pravareswara.
There were many Siva temples in the valley. The Muhammadans destroyed them.[xxxviii]
2)
Urasa:
The
district of U-la-shi or Urasa was a
mountainous district in the vicinity of the valley. The district was 333 miles
in circuit. The principal towns of the district were Mansera, in the north-east; Noshahra,
in the middle, and Kishangarh or Haripur.
3)
Taxila
or Takshasila: The district of Taxila[xxxix]
was 333 miles in circuit. It was bounded by the Indus on the west, by the
district of Urasa on the north, the Jhelam river on the east and Sinhapura on
the south. Hwen Thsang[xl]
visited twice this city. He describes the city that it was one and a half mile
in circuit. Cunningham identifies the site of the ancient city with the ruins
near Shah-dheri. The ruins of ancient habitats covering over an area of six
square miles, now known as Bir, Hatial,
Sir-Kap-ka-kot, Kacha-kot, Babar khana and Sir-Suk-ka-kot might be included
in ancient city of Taxila. Manikyala had a great Stupa where Buddha offered his body to a starving tiger. The Stupa was built by Raja Man on whose
name the Stupa was erected and a
city, Maniknagar or Manikur came up.
4)
Singhapura
or Ketas: The district was 600 miles in circuit. On the west
it was bounded by the Indus, on the north by the southern frontier of Taxila,
and on the south by the Jhelam and on the north Taki. The capital of Singhapura was identified with the ruined
fort of Kotera or the area around holy
tanks of Ketaksh or Khetas[xli].
The circuit of the town was less than three quarters of a mile. The holy
place was claimed by the Jains, Buddhists and Brahmins.
5)
Punacha
or Punach The district of Punacha or Punach[xlii]
was 333 miles in circuit. It is bounded by Jhelum on the west, Pir Panchal
range on the north, Rajaori on other sides. It formed part of the kingdom of
Kashmir on several occasions.
6)
Rajapura
or Rajaori : The circuit of the district was about 667
miles. The petty principalities were mostly dependent on Kashmir. Rajapuri is
frequently heard from the medieval period. (AGI p109).
Cunningham
adds ‘a brief outline of the petty states now shown under Panjab. They were
twenty–two Muhammadan and twenty-two Hindu states. These states were under the
control of three major kingdoms of the region, Kashmir, Dogra and Trigartta.
Most of the Hindu rulers claim their origin to Surya Vamsa or Soma Vamsa and
owe their allegiance to Rajputs or kings of Kashmir. As the Muhammadans
advanced, these rajas left the plains and settled in the hills. Jalandhara,
genrally known as Kangra, was about
167 miles from east to west and 133 miles from north to south. According to Padma Purana, Jalandhara was a
powerful daitya king who became
invincible through his penance. He was overwhelmed by Siva and crushed to death
under the heap of mountains. The royal family of Jalandhara and Kangra was one
of the oldest in India. The other chief kingdoms were Champa, Kullu, Mandi
and Sukhet, Nurpur or Pathania and Satadru. (AGIp100).
III
Taki or Panjab:
The kingdom of Tse-kia, in the seventh century embraced
the whole of the plains of Panjab from the Indus to the Biks and from the foot
of the mountains to the junction of the five rivers below Multan. Takin might be intended for the hills of
Panjab. Taki or Panjab was divided into
Taki, Bukhephala, Shorkot and Multan. The province of Taki comprised the
plains of the Panjab, Multan in the place of Doab and Multan in the lower portions.
1. Taki, or Northern Panjab: Taki
contained ‘several of the most celebrated places –some connected to Alexander’s
invasion, some famous in Buddhist history and others were known for the widely
traditions of the people. Jobnathnagar or Bhira, the city of Raja Jobnath or
Chobnath which was described by the Greek historians, was identified with Porus
by Cunningham.
2. Bukephala or Dilwar: It
was the site of the defeat of Porus which was contested by many. Bukhephala was
also one along with Jhelam, Nikoie or Mong and Jalalpur. Cunningham presents a
long discussion on the identification of the historic meet between Porus and
Alexander. He gives Arrian’s account of the battle.[xliii]
Cunningham says that the city of Bukhephala was where Alexander had crossed the
river. Mong might be the city which Alexander built at the site of his victory.
Sakala and Sagala were also very famous sites in respect of Puranic and
Buddhist accounts. In the beginning of
Christian era, Sagala was the capital of Raja Milinda very famous among the
Buddhists. Sakala was subject to Mihirkul who lost his kingdom to Baladitya,
the king of Magadha. The region could boast of several ruins of cities and
monasteries at Ran-si, Nara-Sinha, Asarur, Ambakapani or Amakatis etc. At
Asarur, ruins of an extensive mound 3 miles in circuit with 59 ft high was
found which includes royal palaces. The city of Lahor or Lohawar was the
capital of Panjab for nearly 900 years. Lo,
Lava, son of Rama, is said to have constructed the city. Another city
Kusawar or Kasur was founded by Rama’s another son, Kusa.
3. Shorkot: The
province was 531 miles in circuit. There are several important towns and many
ruined mounds, the remains of many cities. Shorkot and Kot Kamalia in Rchna
Doab, Harapa, Akbar and Satgarha in Bari Doab and Depalpur and Ajudhan in Doab
Jalandhar Pith are included. The foundation of Shorkot was attributed to a
fabulous Raja Shor about whom nothing is known. Kot Kamalia was a small ancient
town. Kota Kamalia and Harapa were among those cities which fell to Greek army.
Most of these towns were destroyed in Muhammadan invasions.
4. Multan: It
is the southern province of Panjab. There were 17 paraganas during Akbar’s
reign. In Multan division old sites are numerous. To name a few, Tulamba, Atari
and Mutan in Bari Doab, Kahror at Jalandhar Pith, and Uchh at Junction, Ruins
at Tulamba indicate that it might have been a strong fortress in ancient times.
The old town was plundered and burnt by Timur. Atari had a great citadel which
fell to Alexander. Alexander went completely round the citadel in a boat. The
ditch was so wide and deep. Multan was a walled city. The citadel was an
irregular semi-circle. Multan was known
by several names which all connect to either to Vishnu or Sun. It was known as
Kasyapapura[xliv]
founded by Kasyapa father of Daitya and Adityas. He was succeeded by
Hiranyakasyapa. It was also known as Prahladapura named after his son Prahlada.
The kingdom of Multan was occupied by Lord Krishna and his son, Samba was mae
its ruler. So it was known as Sambapura. Several traditions are connected to
this place. There was a temple with
golden statue of Sun which was famous throughout the country and offerings were
pouring into temple, reports Hwen Thsang. It was known as Golden Temple. Multan
might have derived from the word Mulasthana[xlv]
. A detailed account of the siege of Multan by Alexander is added by
Cunningham. (AGI p 199-203. The heroic resistance by the Indians was
appreciated by the Greek chronicles. Alexander was wounded in this battle.
Another town Uchh (Sanskrit Uccha meaning
‘High’) was on at a height from the plains. It is “distinguished by the ruins
of the former towns, which are very extensive, and attest the pristine
prosperity of the locality” says Masson. (AGI p204).
Western
India
In
the seventh century, Western India had three major divisions –I) Sindh, II) Gurjjara and III) Balabhi.
I)
Sindh:
Sindh
comprised the whole valley of the Indus from the Panjab to the sea including
the delta and the island of Kachh. The region is divided into four
principalities, as 1) Upper Sindh, 2) Middle Sindh, 3) Lower Sindh and 4)
Kuchh. After the Alexander’s invasion, this was under the rule of Ayand, son of Kajand. At that time these
three principalities were known as Zor,
Askalanduza, Samid and Lohana. During
the times of Hwen Thsang, these four districts formed parts of one kingdom
under the Raja of Upper Sindh.
1.
Upper
Sindh: Generally known as Siro (Head or Upper) is 1167 miles in circuit. Its capital was
named, Pi-chen-po-pu-lo (Vichavapura
or Vichalapura).[xlvi]
In upper Sindh, only places of ancient note are Alor, Ravi-Bhakar and Mahoria, near Larkahana. In the Alexander’s
campaign, Massana, the Sogdi, the Musikani, and the Prasti are known.
2. Middle Sindh: It
was generally known as Vichalo (Midland).
Its circumference was 417 miles. The chief city, O-fan-cha, has ruins of an ancient city called Bambhra-ka-Tul or Ruined Tower. According to tradition, it was the
site of once famous city of Brahmanavas or Brahmanabad. At present, the
principal places in this division of Sindh are Sehwin, Hala, Haidarabad and
Umarkot. But under Hindu rule, the great cities were Sadusan, Brahmana or Brahmanwas and Nirunkot. Nirunkot was most probably Haidarabad and the ancient Pattala. The places mentioned in the time
of Alexander were Sindomana, and a
city of Brahmans named Harmatelya. Alexander
on his return march appointed Raja Sambus of Brahmanabad who submitted to him,
as his Satrap for the hilly region. But his people, Brahmans, revolted and shut
themselves in the fort. But Greeks,by stratagem induced them to come out and in
the conflict ensued they were to death. It was the last city of Brahmins who
opposed Alexander.[xlvii]
Alexander during his stay at Delta, caused many new cities to come up.
3. Lower Sindh: The
district was 500 miles in circuit. Hwen Thsang mentions only one city namely Pitasila or Patala. The historians of Mohammad Bin Kasim add Debal and Nirankot. The king of Patala though
submitted to Alexander, rebelled after Alexander left the place. Alexander had
to come back to subdue him. Such troubles vexed Alexander on his way back. A little town of Jarak has ruins of great
temples, and Stupas. Debal was a
celebrated sea-port. Debal means simply a temple.
4. Kuchh: The
district was 267 miles in circuit. Its
capital was Alor
Cunningham gives
particulars of other districts to the west of the Indus connected to Alexander,
such as Arabil or Arabitae, Oritae etc. (AGI, 256-262)
II Gurjjara :
The second kingdom
in western India, Gurjjara[xlviii],
was about 300 miles to the north of Balabhi and 467 miles to the north-west of
Ujjain. The capital was Balmer. The kingdom was 833 miles in circuit. Its
boundaries were extending about 130 miles on the north from Balar or Sirdarkot
to Junjhnu, 250 miles on the east from Junjhnu to near Mount Abu, 17 miles on
the south from Abu to near Umakot and 310 miles from Umakot to Balar. The
region forming part of Rajaputana and Panjab was well known for its silver
mines which attracted enemies from outside, the Arabs, Ghazni and Ghor rulers
besides compatriots. So they used to maintain strong cavalry always. The
inscriptions tell us that it was under the rule of Gurjjara kings from about 4thcentury
AD. Most of these inscriptions connect them to mid 5th century.
Their earliest inscription states a record of grant to Brahmins dwelling in the
town of “Jambasura” (AGI, p.266). The
Gurjjars had pushed their conquests as far south as the banks of the river
Narbada in 458 AD. The Gurjjara king Sri
Datta Kusali made several grants of land to certain Brahmins in the district of
Akrureswara near Jambusara which Cunningham identifies with Aklesar on the south
bank of Narbada. (AGI p271). He further says that the natives did not call the
province Gujarat at his times but they called it either Surat or Kathiwar.
III
Valabhadra or Balabhi
In the seventh
century, the kingdom of Balabhi was 1000 miles in circuit. The ruins of famous
city of Balabhi[xlix]
were discovered by Tod near Bhaonagar on the eastern side of the Peninsula of
Gujarat. An inscription of 5th century describes “the beautiful
kingdom of Valabhadra” but it is generally known as Balabhi. (AGI, p266-67). But the inscription of 812 AD
of Raja of Karka[l]
refers to the ancestor of the king, Govinda[li],
as “ornament of Sourashtra” kingdom. Again
Karka’s father Lateswara himself identifies his kingdom with Balabhi.
Cunningham concludes that the old name of Saurashtra was lost in 319 AD when
the successors of Saka kings were supplanted by Vallabhas and the capital
changed from Junagarh to Valabhi. (AGI, p267). The Ballabhis who were expelled by
Govinda founded a new kingdom in Chitore. The second in succession, Guhila or
Guhaditya, gave his name to his tribe, Guhilawat
or Guhilat. About the same time, a chief of Chaura tribe, named Bana Raja or the ‘Jangal lord’ founded a city on the banks of Saraswati called Analwara Pattan. About 720 AD, Krishna,
the Pahlava king, built the fort of Elapura
“the beauty of which according to the inscription, astonished the
immortals”. (AGI, p 268). He also
constructed a Siva temple in this new city which was usually called Pattan
Somnath. Cunningham was inclined to identify this Elapura with Somnath. We come
to know much about this temple which was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. Ferishta
describes the city of Somnath as situated “on a narrow peninsula, washed on
three sides by the sea.” (AGI p 269). After destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni, city
of Somath lost its importance and Analwar became capital city when Mahmud of
Ghor invaded this country. Balabhi was a large kingdom including the whole of
peninsula of Surashtra and the districts of Surat and Bharoch.
1. Surashtra : Su-la-cha
or Suratha was dependent on Balabhi. Its capital, Junagarh, was situated at
the foot of Mount Ujjanta (Girnar Hill). The province was small, but very rich,
and had the ocean to the south. Surath was 667 miles in circuit and touched the
river Mo-hi [lii]on
the west. In spite of the fame of Balabhi, the old name of Surath was still
applied to the whole peninsula so late as 640 AD. (AGI p 274).
2. Bharoch or Baryagaza : The
district Barukachwa[liii]
was 400-417 miles in circuit. Its chief city, Bharoch (Bhrugu-Kachha or Bharu-Kachha) was on
the bank of Narbada river and close to
sea.
Central India
According to
Hwen Thsang, the Central India extended from the Satlej to the head of the
Gangetic Delta and from the Himalayan Mountains to the Narbada and Mahanadi
rivers. It comprised “of all the richest and most populous districts of India,
with an exception of the Gangetic Delta or Bengal Proper” says Cunningham.
(AGI, p 276). ‘Of the seventy separate states of India in the seventh century,
no less than thirty-seven, or rather than one-half belonged to Central India’.
Cunningham chose to ‘follow the footsteps of Hwen Thsang’ who visited all these
states in Central India for his description. According to Hwen Thsang the
entire Central India was under the suzerainty of Harsha Vardhana of Pushyabhuti
dynasty.
1. Sthaneswara : Sthaneswara
was the capital of a separate kingdom which was a tributary of Harsha. The
province was 1167 miles in circuit extending from the Satlej to the Ganges. The
town of Sthaneswar ( Thaneswar) consists of an old ruined fort, about 12000 sq
ft. at top, with the modern town on a mound to the east. According to
tradition, the town was built by Raja Dilip, a discendent of Kuru. The name Sthaneswar is said to be derived
from the Sthana,(Mahadeva). Sthanu and Iswara, both, are His names. All the country between the Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers is known as Kuru-kshetra,
the land of Kuru who is said to have become an ascetic on the bank of the
lake known as Brahma-Sar, Rama-hrad[liv],
Vayu, or Vayava-Sar and Pavan-Sar.
The old town of Prithudaka was situated on the banks of Saraswati, 14 miles to
the west of Thaneswar which is connected to the famous Prithu Chakravarti who was the first person to get the title of
Raja.[lv]
Five miles to the south of Thanewar, there is a large and lofty mound called Amin which is said to be the place where
Chakravyuha was arranged in which
Abhimanyu son of Arjuna was murdered by
Kauravas. There is also a Surya-kund with
a temple to Aditi.
2. Bairat: In
the seventh century, the country was 500 miles in circuit. Bairat included the greater part of present
Jaipur. The city of Paryatra or Bairat
is also pronounced as Virat , the
capital of Matsya . The capital was
two and a half miles in circuit. The Pandavas took refuge when they were in
exile. The residence of Bhim is shown on the top of a long low rocky hill about
one mile to the north of the town. This country has long been famous for its
copper mines. The city was plundered and ruined by Mahmud of Ghazni.
3. Srughna:
Kingdom Srughna was 1000 miles in circuit. Now known as Sughan and Sugh, the
village of Sugh “occupies one of the most remarkable positions that I met with
during the whole course of my researches” says Cunningham. (AGI, p 291). In
shape it is almost a triangular, with a large projecting fort or citadel at
each of the angles and surrounded on three sides by the bed of the old Jamuna
river.
4. Madawar: The kingdom of Madawar
(Madipura)[lvi]
was 1000 miles in circuit. The king of Madawar was a Sudra who worshippd Devas and
cared nothing for Buddhism according to Hwen Thsang. The capital, Madipura ,
was in Western Rohikhand. On the north-western frontier, a town called Mayura was situated where there was a great
temple called “the gate of the Ganges” known as Ganga-dwara, old name of Haridwara. Cunningham discussed the
dispute about the place which was known both ways as Haradwara and Haridwara. (AGI pp295-299).
5. Bramhaputra : The kingdom of Brahmaputra
was 667 miles in circuit including the whole of the hill-country between the
Alakananda and Karnali rivers which is now known as British Garhwal and Kumaon
districts.
6. Govisana or Kashipur: The district of
Govisana was 333 miles in circuit including the present [lvii]
districts of Kashipur, Rampur and
Pillibhit. Cunningham infers that the old fort near the village Ujain represents the ancient city of Govisana. The
fort had a peculiar form. It may be compared to the body of a guitar, 3000 ft
in length and 1500 ft in breadth and the circuit was less than two and a half
miles.
7. Ahichhatra: The district Ahichhatra was about 500 miles in
circuit comprising eastern half of Rohilkhand[lviii].
The city Ahicchatra was just 3 miles in circuit. Its antiquity goes back to BC
1430[lix]
when it was the capital of northern Panchala.
The local legend of Adi Raja and Naga who formed a canopy over his head when
asleep is connected to the founding of this kingdom. Drona of Mahabharata found
him sleeping under the guardianship of serpent predicted that he would become a
king in future. The fort is called Adikot.
8. Piloshana: Piloshana was about 250
miles in circuit extending from Bulandshahar to Firuzabad and the Jumna and
Kadirganj on the Ganges. Cunningham was “led to believe that Soron was the only place in this vicinity of great
antiquity.” (AGI p307). The place was
originally called Ukala Kshetra. Here
the demon Hiranyaksha was killed by
Vishnu in the form of a Boar . Later its name changed to Sukara (‘the place of good deed’). The ancient town is represented
by a ruined mound called the Kilah or
fort.[lx]
The original settlement of the place is very much older and attributed to the
fabulous Raja Vena Chakravarti who
plays a conspicuous part in all the legends of North Bihar, Oudh and
Rohilkhand.
9. Sankisa : Sankisa might be 220
miles in circuit with Ganges and Jamuna on the north and south. Sankisa town was about 3 miles in
circuit. It was one of the most famous places of Buddhist pilgrimages. The
Buddhist legend says that Buddha descended at this place through a gold
staircase accompanied by Indra and Brahma from the Trayastrinsa heaven after preaching the Law of Buddha to his mother
Maya. There was a monastery here. Sankisa was deserted from 1800 to 1900 years
ago and the site was given to a body of Brahmins in about 560 years ago. Hwen
Thsang said that many tens of thousands of Brahmins dwelt around the mound. The
village was wholly populated by Brahmins as reported by him. (AGI p 14).
10. Mathura:
Mathura was the capital of a large kingdom which was
about 833 miles in circuit. It includes the present district of Mathura with
the small states of Bharatpur, Khiraoli and Dholpur and the northern half of
the Gwalior. The holy city of Mathura is
connected with the history of Krishna. Vrindavana (grove of basil trees) is
situated at 6 miles from Mathura. It is famed as the place of Krishna’s sports
with the milkmaids.
11. Kanoj: Kanoj including all the country between
Kairabad and Tanda on the Ghagra and
Etawa and Allahabad on the Jumna might be 600 miles in circuit. The
great city of Kanoj was the Hindu capital of the most part of northern India
for many hundreds of years. It was the capital of Harsha Vardhana in seventh
century. The ancient city of 7th century had a length of 3 miles
with 1 mile breadth. Within these limits are found all the ruins that still
exist to point out the position of the once famous city of Kanoj. (AGI p322)
12. Ayuto : Ayuto
was a small tract lying between Kakupur and Cawnpur and it was 83 miles in
circuit. Kakupura, the capital, was once a large city with a Raja of its own.
The ruined mound indicate a fort named
Chhatrapur, found by Raja Chhatra Pal Chandel some 900 years ago. There were two famous temples dedicated to Kshireswara Mahadeva and Aswathama
, son of Drona of Mahabharata. (AGI p3 25).
13. Hayamukha : Cunningham says Haya Mukha[lxi]
might have comprised the whole of the present Baiswara which lies between Sai and the Ganges rivers from Cawnpore
to Manikpur and Solon. The principality was about 417 miles in circuit.
Cunningham identifies the town, Hayamukha, with Daundia-khera, which 3 miles in circuit.
14. Prayaga: Cunningham
says that Prayaga might have been a small tract in the fork of the Doab, immediately above the junction of
the Ganges and Jumna. It might be 83 miles in circuit. The city of Prayag (now
known as Allahabad) was existing during the Asokan times. It got its name from
the “tree of prag” which was placed
in the centre of the city. It is a great pilgrimage centre for the Hindus.
15. Kosambi: The district of Kosambi might be 100
miles in circuit. It is said that present Kosambi stands on the actual site of
ancient Kosambi which was also mentioned in Ramayana. Kosam was the actual site of the once famous Kosambi. The present
ruins of Kosambi consist of immense fortress formed of earthen ramparts and
bastions with a circuit of 4 miles and 3 furlongs. A legend of infant, Bakkula,
is connected to this place.[lxii]
16. Kusapura : Cunningham
identifies Kusapura with the present Sultanpur which was one and a half mile in
circuit. Kusapura is named after Rama’s son Kusa. The site was in a strategic
place being surrounded by Gomati river on three sides. Eighteen miles from
Kusapur, there is a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage called Dhopapapura. (AGI, p 338).
17. Visakha, Saketa or Ajudhya : The
district might be 67 miles in circuit comprising of small tract lying around
Ajudhya, between the Ghagra and Gomati rivers. Visakha city might be two and a
half miles in circuit. Cunningham identifies that all these names, Visakha,
Saketa and Ajudhya denote the same site, the capital of Sri Rama. Visakha,[lxiii]
the most celebrated of all females in Buddhist history was a resident of Saketa
before her marriage with Purna Vardhana, son of Mrigara, the rich merchant of
Sravasti. Her father, also a rich merchant called Dhana Deva migrated from
Rajagriha to Saketa. Visakha erected a Purvarama
at Sravasti where Buddha stayed for 16 years and 9 years in Jetavana according to Ceylonese account.
18. Sravasti : In
the seventh century, the kingdom of Sravasti might be comprising all the
country lying between Himalayas and the Ghagra river, from the Karnali river on
the west to the mountain of Dhaolagiri and Faizabad on the east, 600 miles in
circuit. The city Sravasti is said to have
been built by Raja Sravasta, the son of Yuvanaswa of solar race long before
Rama. Cunningham says, “Its foundation, therefore, reaches to the fabulous
ages of Indian history. Purana assigns the city to Lava after Rama. Again it
gains importance during the times of Buddha when it was the capital of King
Prasenajit, the king of Maha Kosala. He took to Buddhism. But his son,
Virudhaka hated the race of Sakyas and his invasion of their country and
subsequent massacre of 500 maidens who had been selected for his harem brought
forth a prediction of Buddha that within seven days the king would be consumed
by fire. The prediction came true. Sravasti during Hwen Thsang’s times, was
under the rule of King Vikramaditya who became a persecutor of Buddhists.
Buddhist scholar, Manorhita was worsted by Brahmins in arguments and he was put
to death. But his son, Vasubandhu, a great Buddhist scholar, defeated Brahmin
scholars during the reign of the successor to Vikramaditya. (AGI, p 347).
19. Kapila: Kapila
was 667 miles in circuit stretching over a tract lying between the Ghagra and
Gandak from Faizabad to the confluence of those rivers. The capital city,
Kapila, is the birth place of Gotama. According to Buddhist chronicles,
Kapilavastu or Kapilanagara was founded by some descendents of the solar hero
Gotama on the bank of a lake near the river Rohini in Kosala. Kapila might also refer to sage Kapila
whose hermitage was also on the bank of the lake opposite city. The river
Rohini was flowing between the cities of Kapila and Koli which was the birth
place of Maya Devi. It was also called Vyaghrapura.
About 33 miles from Kapila, the Chinese travelers found a city called
Ramagrama. This site is connected with the division of Buddha’s relics into
eight parts and the entire casket was washed away by the river and reached
ocean where nagas have retrieved it
and presented to their king who built a stupa.
(AGI, p 355-6). The river Anoma was famous in the history of Buddhism as the
scene of Prince Siddhartha’s assumption of the dress of an ascetic, where he
cut off his hair.[lxiv] At Pippalavana, a stupa was erected over the charcoal ashes of the funeral pile of
Buddha. The Moriyas of the city,
having applied too late for a share in the relics of the body were obliged to
be content with the ashes. (AGI, p 362).
20. Kusinagara: Kusinagara,
the capital city, was about 2 miles in circuit and it was in ruins when Hen
Thsang visited in 7th century. The place was also deserted. The spot
where Buddha attained Nirvana, Cunningham believes, might have been the site
where the present stupa stands and
ruins now called Matha-kuar-ka –kot or
the “fort of the Dead Prince” might be the place where his body was burnt. The
Buddhists believe that Buddha attained Nirvana
on the full-moon day of Visakha in
543 BC. Hwen Thsang left for Banaras from this place. On the way, he halted at
a large town where a Brahman devoted to Buddhism offered him hospitality. The
town is not identified. It might be Khukhundo
or Kahaon near Rudrapur. All this region was dominated by Brahmin
presence. According to Ceylonese chronicles, Buddha stopped at Pawa before he
reached Kusinagara. Between Pawa and Kusinagara, Buddha bathed in a stream
called Kukuttha. This stream could be
identified as the present Barhi or Barhi Nala.
Pawa was given a share of Buddha’s relics along with other seven major cities.
(AGI, p366).
21. Varanasi or Banaras
: The kingdom of Varanasi was 667 miles
and the capital city was 3 miles in circuit on the left bank of Ganges between
the Barna or Varana on the north-east
and Asi Nala on the south-west. Barna
is a considerable rivulet but Asi is mere a brook.The joint name Varanasi may have communicated its name
to the city. The points of junction of both streams with the Ganges are
considered particularly holy, and accordingly temples are erected at both Sangam places. The earliest name of
Varanasi was Kasi which is still in common use and also popular as Kasi-Banaras. Kasi-raja was one of the early progenitors of Lunar race. Banaras
is also a celebrated city for Buddhists for their Teacher gave his ‘First
Sermon’ here, [lxv]at
a place called Saranath.
22. Gajapatipura: About
50 miles to the east of Banaras, the present Ghazipura (Garjpur) might be the
Gajapatipura, the capital of a district about 333 miles in circuit lying
between the Ghagra on the north and the Gomati on the south, from Tanda on the
west to the confluence of the Ganges and Ghagra. In Gajapatipura, there existed
a monastery called Avidhakarna (“pierced
ears”). Still a small village one mile away from the monastery is called Avidhakarna-pura. The confluence of
Ganges and Ghogra was considered holy by the Brahmans and numerous temples were
erected. One such temple was that of Narayana
or Vishnu. To the east of the temple, was a monastery which is considered
as the spot where Buddha had overcome and converted certain evil Demons. (AGI,
p 371).
23. Vaishali: The
kingdom of Vaisali, Cunningham says, along with the neighboring kingdom of Vriji might be about 800 miles in
circuit. Both of the states are placed between the mountains and the Ganges.
Raja Visala was the founder of Vaisali . The fort in ruins could be found in a
village called Besarah. The royal palace was
about 3500 to 4400 feet in circuit. The people of Vaisali were called Lichhavis. Lichhavi, Vaideha and Tirabhukti are synonymous. Vaideha is
well known since Ramayaa times as a common name to Mithila.
Tirabhukti is the present Tirahut. The modern town of Janakpur in the
Mithari district is considered the capital of Mithila. Vrijis were a large tribe divided into several branches, namely Lichhavi of Vaisali, the Vaidhis of Mithila, the Tirabhuktis of Tirhut, etc.,.
24. Vriji: According
to Hwen Thsang, the country of the Vrijis was long from east to west and narrow
from north to south. The tract was lying between the Gandak and Mahanadi rivers
which is about 300 miles long and 100 miles in breadth. There were several
ancient cities some of which were the capitals of eight different clans of
Vrijis[lxvi].
Cunningham found Navandgarh “one of
the oldest and most interesting places in northern India”. (AGI, p 378). It is
a ruined fort from 250 to 300 ft square on the top and 80 ft in height. It is
situated close to the village of Lauriya. The
ancient remains include an Asokan Pillar and the Stupas were mounds of earth. Cunningham thinks that these mounds
might be sepulchral monuments of the early kings dating back to 600 to 1500 BC.
Colebrooks translates Stupa as ‘mound of earth’. Buddha complimented Wajjians, “they maintain, respect, reverence
and make offerings to them (the mounds or stupas
or chaityas) and that they keep up without diminution the ancient
offerings, the ancient observances, and the ancient sacrifices righteously
made”. Therefore, Cunningham maintains that these mounds were pre-Buddhist.
(AGI, p 379).
25. Nepala: Nepala
might be about 1000 miles in circuit consisting of seven streams of river Kosi,
named Sapta Kausiki. The
raja of Nepal was a Kshatriya belonging to Lichhavi
race. Curiously, the kings of Tibet, and Ladak were also Lichhavis. Cunningham thinks that they
might be off-shoots of Nepal royal family. The Lichhavi conquest of Nepal
was estimated by Cunningham to BC 4.
26. Magadha: The
province of Magadha was about 833 miles in circuit, bounded by the Ganges on
the north, by the districts of Banaras on the west, by Hiranya Parvata or
Mongiron on the east, and Kirana Suvarna or Singbhum on the south. The capital
of Magadha was known as Kusumapura but
it was deserted when Hwen Thsang visited. The old city was 11 2/3 miles in
circuit. The new town, Pataliputa pura, was
called as capital of India by the Greeks. Megasthenes gives a clear description
of the city. It was 25 ¼ miles in circuit. According to Vayu Purana, the city of Kusumapura or Pataliputra was founded by
Raja Udayaswa, grandson of Ajatasatru, a well known contemporary of Buddha.
Ajatasatru’s ministers were engaged in building a fort in the village Patali to check the Vrijis. Buddha predicted
that it would grow into a great city. The city was completed during the reign
of Udaya, the grandson of Ajatasatru about the year 450 BC. The position of the
city was at the junction of Ganges and Gandak (Hiranyavati) now known as river Sona
(gold). The Magadha was the scene of Buddha’s early career as a religious
reformer. It possesses a greater number of holy places connected to Buddhism
than any other province in India.[lxvii]
Cunningham gives the details of the Buddhist sites described by Hwen Thsang.
(AGI, pp 384-401). Some of these sites are also important from Puranic point of view. Kusagarapura (The town of Kusa grass)
was a city in ruins. On the hill near
the city, it is believed that sage Vyasa
had formally dwelt. The ruins of that house was still existing at that time.
There was a big cave which people called “the Palace of Asuras”. There is a
Mount called Vipula which Cuunningham identifies with Chaityaka of Mahabharata. In the neighborhood of Gaya, in an
another Buddhist site, just opposite the village Giryek, two parallel ranges of
hills stretch towards the north-east of which one is lower than the other in
height. The lower peak on the east is crowned
with a solid tower of brickwork well known as Jarasandh-ka-baithak or Jarasandha’s throne (Mahabharat) while
on the other there are ruins of Buddhist vihara.
27. Hiranya Parvata: Cunningham
fixes its limits as extending from Lakhi Sarai to Sultanganj on the Ganges in
the north and from the western end of Parsanth
hill to the junction and estimated its circuit as 350 miles. The capital city of the kingdom stood at
Mount Hiranya (Golden Mountain).
Cunningham identifies the mountain as Modagiri
mentioned in Mahabharat.
28. Champa:
Champa was the old name for Bhagalpur surrounded by Ganges. Its circuit was
about 667 miles bounded by the Ganges on the north and by Hiranya-Parvata or
Mongir on the west.
29. Kankjol:
Kankjo might have comprised the whole of hill country to the south and west of
Rajmahal with the plains lying between the hills and the Bhagirathi river as
far south as Mushirabad. This tract might be 300 miles in circuit.
30. Paundra Vardhana:
The country[lxviii]
bounded by the Mahanadi on the west and Tista and Brahmaputa on the east and
the Ganges on the south. It was 667 miles in circuit.
31. Jajhoti:
It corresponds with the modern district of Bundelkhand. Its capital was
Khajuraho. The country was 667 miles in circuit comprising all country to the
south of the Jumna and Ganges, from the Betwa river on the west of the temple Vindhyavasini Devi on the east and Bilhari
near the sources of the Narbada
river on the south. Jajhoti Brahmins[lxix]
were well distributed over the whole province. Khajuraho has most magnificent
group of Hindu temples. A traditional story is connected with Mahoba (Mahotsavanagar), another ancient city in
the region. The Chandelas sprang from Hemavati, a Brahmin girl, through Chadrama, the Moon around 800 AD. (AGI p
410).
32. Maheswarapura: The
kingdom was 500 miles in circuit extending from Dumoh and Leoni on the west to
the source of Narbada on the east.
33. Ujjain: The
kingdom was 1000 miles in circuit. It was bounded by Malwa on the west. It was
under the rule of Brahman Raja. The temples of gods were very numerous.
34. Malawa: Malawa
was bound by Vadari on the north, Balabhi on the west, Ujjain on the east and
Maharashtra on the south. It might be 167 miles in circuit with the ancient
Dhara (Dharanagari) as capital. Hwen Thsang writes that Magadha and Malawa were
especially esteemed for Buddhist studies. Malawa was having hundreds of
monasteries and no less than twenty
thousand monks of the school f Sammatiyas.
Fifty years before his visit, Malawa was ruled by a staunch Buddhist king, Siladitya. (AGI, p 415).
35. Kheda: Kheda
(the present Kaira) was extending from the bank of Sabarmati on the west to the
great bend of the Mahi river on the north-east and to Baroda in the south. In
shape a rough square. It was 500 miles
in circuit.
36. Anandapura: The
district was 333 miles in circuit and dependent on Malawa.
37. Vadari or Eder: The
size of the province was 1000 miles in circuit. Its boundaries might be Ajmer
and Ranthambhore to the north, the Loni and Chambal rivers on the east and
west, and the Malwa frontier on the south. Pliny described that the region was
possessing “extensive mines of gold and silver”. And so “the Gulf of Khambay
was the great emporium of Indian trade with the west” opines Cunningham. (AGI,
p 421).
Eastern
India
The
Eastern India comprised Assam and Bengal proper together with the Delta of
Ganges, Sambhalpur, Orissa and Ganjam. There were six kingdoms in Eastern India
according to Hwen Thsang. These are, Kamarupa,
Samatata, Tamralipti, Kirana Suvarna, Odra and Ganjam.
1. Kamarupa: Kamarupa
was the ancient name of Assam. The territory was 1667 miles in circuit
comprising the whole valley of the Brahmaputra river or modern Assam, together
with Kusa-Viahara and Butan. The Brahmaputra Valley was in turn divided into
three sub regions, Sadiya, Assam proper
and Kamarup. Kamarup was the most powerful state also the
nearest to the rest of India. Kusa-Vihara was the richest part of the country. Therefore,
it was for sometime capital of the country, The chief city was Kamatipura. The
old capital of Kamarup was Gohati on the south bank of Brahmaputra. On the
east, Kamarup touched the frontiers of
“western barbarians” of the Chinese province Shu. The king in the 7th century was Brahman, named
Bhaskara Varmma who claimed descent from Vishnu. His family were ruling the
country for 1000 generations, but he became a staunch Buddhist and accompanied
Harsha Vardhana in his procession from Pataliputra to Kanoj. (AGI, p421-3).
2. Samatata:
The country of Samatata is mentioned in the inscription of Samudra Gupta in
which it was coupled with Nepala. It is also mentioned in the geographical list
of Varahamihira. Hwen Thsang describes
it as ‘a low, moist country on the seashore’. Samatata might have been the
Delta of the Ganges and was about 500 miles in circuit.
3. Tamralipti:
The kingdom of Tamralipti was about 250 miles in circuit, situated on the
seashore and the surface of the country was wet and low. Tamralipti was the
Sanskrit name of Tamluk which is situated on Rupnarayan river. It was small
fertile land lying to the westward of the Hughli river.
4. Kirana-Suvarna: The
kingdom was 750 miles in circuit comprising all petty hill-states lying between
Medinpur and Sirguja on the east and west, and between the sources of the
Damuda and Vaitarani on the north and south. The province was occupied by wild
tribes with a collective name of Kols. The
people speak various dialects of two distinct languages belonging to two
different races, Munda and Uroons. The language of Uroons is connected to Tamil where as
that of Mundas to northern tribes. The name of Kirana means man of mixed race and
Suvarnas are barbarian Suvaras or Suars. In the 7th
century, the king of this country was Sasangha
who is famed as a great persecutor of Buddhists. (AGI, p 430)
5. Odra or Orissa: The province was 1167 miles in circuit,
extended to Hughli and Damuda rivers on the north and to the Godavari in the
south. But the old province, Odra-desa was
limited to the valley of Mahanadi and to the lower course of Suvarnriksha river. It comprised the
present districts of Kuttak and Sambhalpur and a portion of Medinipur. The city
of Puri is famous for the Jagannath temple. The ancient metropolis of the
country was Kotah on the bank of
Mahanadi river. In sixth century, Raja Jajati Kesari established a new capital
called Jajatipura (the modern Jajipura). Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills have
Buddhist caves. (AGI p.431-2).
6. Ganjam:
The district was about 167 miles in circuit and the territory was confined to
the small valley of Risikulya river. Ganjam, the old capital, was situated near
Chilka lake and ocean. The king in the seventh century might be Lalitendra
Kesari who was later defeated by Harsha Vardhana. Afterwards it was annexed to
Orissa. (AGI, p 432-4).
Southern
India
Southern India
comprised whole of the peninsula to the south of the Tapti and Mahanadi rivers
from Nasik on the west to Ganjam on the east. It was divided into nine separate
kingdoms, exclusive of Ceylon which was not considered as belonging to India.
They were: Kalinga, Kosala, Andhra, Dhnakataka, Jorya, Dravida, Malakuta,
Konkan and Maharashtra.
1.
Kalinga
: The
kingdom was 833 miles in circuit. Its boundary in the south might be river
Godavari, to its west Andhra and to the north Ganjam. Its original capital was
Srikakulam. Mahendragiri mountan rage
which retained its name from the Mahabharata times is its special feature.
Rajahmundry was the capital of Vengi , the eastern branch of the Chalukyas.
During the life time of the Buddha, Kalinga was famous for the manufacture of
fine muslins. After the death of Buddha, the king of Kalinga obtained one of
the teeth of the Buddha, over which he built a magnificent Stupa at Dantapura, says Cunningham (AGI, p 436-8).
2.
Kosala
: The
ancient Kosala might be the present province of Berar, or Gondwana. The kingdom
of Kosala was 1000 miles in circuit and Cunningham opines that it was bounded
by Ujjain on the north, by Maharashtra on the west, by Orissa on the east and
by Andhra and Kalinga on the south. The position of its capital is difficult to
be fixed among the major cities of the province, Chanda, Nagpur, Amaravati and
Elichpur which was stated to be nearly 7 miles in circuit. (AGI, p 438-44).
3.
Andhra:
The
province of Andhra was in 500 miles in circuit and frontiers are not mentioned.
Cunningham presumes that the Godavari river to the north and east. It is also
limit of the Telugu language towards the north. To the west, it meets the
kingdom of Maharashtra. The territory cannot have extended beyond the Manjira
branch of the Godavari to Bhadrachalam on the south-east. Andhras are mentioned
by Pliny that they possessed thirty fortified cities. The Chinese pilgrim
states that language of the people of Andhra was different from that of Central
India but the forms of the written characters were the most part the same. The
old Nagari alphabet was still in use.
Cunningham infers that the Telugu characters which are found in inscriptions of
the tenth century had not been adopted in the south. (AGI, p 446).
4.
Danakakotta:
Cunningham
identifies the place with Dharanikota or
Amaravati on the banks of Krishna river.[lxx]
The province was 1000 miles in circuit. The boundaries of the province as
nearly as possible with the limits of the Telugu language which extended to
Kulbarga and Pennakonda on the west, and to Tripati and Pulikat lake on the
south, Andhra and Kalinga on the north and on the east by the sea.
5.
Choliya
or Joriya: This
is a small district of 400 miles in circuit. The country was not properly
identified.
6.
Dravida:
The country was 1000 miles in circuit and its capital Kanchi[lxxi]
was 5 miles in circuit.
7.
Malakuta
or Madura: The country was the southern end of the peninsula. The country was 500 miles in circuit.
Cunnigham infers that Madura might be the capital city of the province.
8.
Konkana
:
The country was 833 miles in circuit. It might be including the whole line of
coast from Bombay to Mangalor and might have extended inland far beyond the
line of Western Ghats.
9.
Maharashtra:
The province was 1000 miles in circuit. The tract had Malwa on the north,
Kosala and Andhra on the east, Konkana on the south and the sea on the west.
Its capital was 5 miles in circuit. Cunningham is inclined to suggest the
Paithan or Pratishthana might be its
capital.
Cunningham
adds a small note on Ceylon at the end of narration though it was not
considered a part of India. Hwen Thsang wanted to visit Ceylon because Buddhism
was popularized there during Asoka’s reign. Buddhism was State religion for
some time. But he heard that there was political trouble caused by the assassination
of the reigning king. So, he changed his mind and took return path through
Konkan and Maharashtra and North-west, back to his country. The ancient name of the island was Sinhala. The meaning of its original
name is Ratna-dwipa. The Greeks
called Taprobane. The island,
according to Sir Emerson Tennet, is about 650 miles in circuit being 271 ½
miles in length from north to south and 137 ½ miles from east to west.
Cunningham states that the Ceylonese were barbarians until the landing of
Vijaya in 543 BC; and there is no satisfactory evidence of any Aryan connection
or intercourse before the visit of Mahendra, the son of Asoka, in BC 242. (AGI
p 472).
Cunningham
added three Appendices to his book : A) Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang’s
Travels, B) Measures of Distance and C) Correction of Ptolemy’s Eastern Longitudes
followed by very useful Index.
Some
Observations:
Alexander
Cunningham was distinguished as the first Archaeological Surveyor officially
appointed by the English Government in India after his retirement from military
service. Later, he was designated as the Director of the Department of
Archaeology. While he was in military service as Engineer he had the advantage
of surveying the frontier provinces for military purposes. He lamented that
many ancient sites (mounds) were dug indiscriminately for laying roads in the
frontier regions for military purposes and used the mud, bricks and stones in
the constructions. The north-west region where Hindu kingdoms and culture existed
centuries before Christ came under barbarian tribes from central Asia in the
medieval times. The towns and monasteries were destroyed beyond recognition. He
found that most of the Buddhist structures –stupas,
chaityas and universities, were razed to ground during the Muslim
invasions. Muslim conquerors treated the Buddhism equally idolatrous with the
Hinduism. They persecuted both. He came
across many such ruins of old sites during his general survey and took interest
in the archaeological exploration of these regions simultaneously. He could
also seek cooperation of his colleagues in the military service in locating
preserving certain sites. He must be remembered for long for preserving some of
the sites. He sustained his interest in history throughout even after he
returned to his motherland. His contribution to numismatics is also
praiseworthy. The present work is a comprehensive one in which he tried to
point out various ancient towns on the modern Indian map.
The
Greeks did pioneering work in mapping India according to the information they
collected from different sources, while the Arabs and Chinese did visit India
and travelled in this country. Greeks’ personal acquaintance of India was
mostly limited to north-west. Among them, only Megasthenese visited the kingdom
of Magadha but probably his movements were confined to its capital city,
Pataliputra. He, it seems, was not permitted to travel freely in India, as the
‘Artha Sastra’ had stipulated many conditions on the movements of foreigners in
the Mauryan Empire.[lxxii]
Arabs’ personal knowledge was also mostly
limited to the West Coast and the Sindh area whereas Chinese pilgrims had
toured extensively in India. Among the Chinese, Yuan Chwang (Hwen Thsang)
toured entire India and recorded valuable information about our country,
people, religious practices, commerce and trade.
Cunningham
adopted the classical five-division scheme for his presentation on historical
geography of India. What we call, today, the Indian sub-continent including
Kabul, Afghanistan etc in the north-west upto Burma in the east, including
Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet and Ladakh was then known as ‘one’ India. It has no
comparison to the present truncated Republican State. Cunningham’s work on
Northern India and Central India was quite exhaustive, but, his description of
other divisions was cursory. He made the best use of the Greek notices as
primary while describing north-west India
which he called Northern India and took Yuan-Chwang’s travel account as corroborative
evidences to identify the ancient towns and the ancient sites in that region. The
Central India possessed numerous Buddhist sites and includes the Buddhist
Circuit also because the life and career of Buddha was mostly connected to this
region. Here, Cunningham took the travelogue of Yuan Chwang as primary and the
Greek notices as corroborative evidence for his findings. Cunningham also
referred to Sanskrit and Pali sources to some extent in identifying the names
of certain places. Indian place names are, of course, difficult to spell or pronounce in a foreign
tongue. Greek and Chinese languages are totally dissimilar to each other.
Cunningham had great difficulty in identifying the place names from both Greek
and Chinese sources. He took the Sanskrit and Pali versions to spell the names
properly. But, he, being a foreigner, might have found it difficult to read the
names and to interpret them. At times, he had to depend on the early literal
translations of the Puranas and other Indian literature. The similarities and
the origin of Indian names might have been more difficult for him to interpret
and connect them with historical events.
Yuan Chwang being a Buddhist monk was basically
interested in the centers of Buddhism and the holy places connected to it.
While he was reporting on the communities other than his own Faith, his
prejudices against them are quite evident. He paid very high tributes to King
Harsha Vardhana who was his patron and whom he called the Lord of (entire)
North India. Obviously, he did not report much on the other divisions of India
– Western, Eastern and Southern India—where the reigning kings were mostly
Hindu. Cunningham has literally walked in the foot-steps of the Chinese pilgrim
in his narration and so his work is also deficient with regard to those three
divisions of India. Apart from that, he had personally travelled only in North
India and Narmada River was his boundary in the south. So he had no personal
knowledge about the south of Vindhyas according to himself.[lxxiii]
Though
Cunningham has not taken the geographical information available in the Puranas,
Itihasas, Kavyas etc, as primary for his work, he endeavoured to identify the
remote antiquity of some of the places like Mulasthana
(Multan) known as Kashyapapura, the
capital of Kasyapa Prajapati, father of Daityas
and Adityas, in the north-west and the
place called Ukala Kshetra in the
Central India where Vishnu incarnated
in the form of a Boar to kill Hiranyaksha. This reminds us the fact, that
serious studies are most welcome from our native scholars to map-up ancient
India taking Indian sources as primary. Satguru Sivananda Murtyji[lxxiv]
suggests that we need to write the “Geography
of History”. We already have history in form of Puranas, Itihasas and
Kavyas. What we need is to identify our ancient historical events in their
proper geographical locations. This would enable us to authenticate our history
from Puranas. The modern Historical Method insists us to put our history in the
frame of two co-ordinates – the place and the time. If the place is fixed for a
Puranic earthly event[lxxv],
the modern techniques of Archaeology like Remote Sensing etc can be employed to
explore the sub-strata of the identified site and estimate the time frame of
the civilization and culture using modern scientific methods. The antiquity of
Hindu civilization based on its ancient cultural values, if proven, is not only
a pride of our Bharat but of the humanity at large. If efforts are continued in
this direction, Cunningham’s work will serve us as a torch-bearer.
Notes:
[i] Former
Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences and Professor of History (retired), Kakatiya
University, Warangal. Email:
ysudershanrao@gmail.com.
Blog :
ysudershanrao@blogspot.com,
Mobile +91 9849450116. The
author expresses his gratitude to
Satguru Sivananda Murtyji
(Bhimunipatnam) for suggesting the theme and for His gracious guidance
throughout.
[ii]
It is said that Vasco de Gama met with one Ibn Majid and found at him lots of
maps and marine devices. The Arabs were well connected with India by sea for
trade. (http://www.muslimstoday.info/content/story/arabs-founders-geography)
[iii]
According to Strabo, Alexander “caused the whole country to be described by men
well acquainted with it” –Geographia –ii. 1.6
[iv]
Seafaring of Arabs is referred to in the ancient writings of Strabo and
Ptolemy. But, only in the middle ages, the Arab Geographers were known to be
well-versed in the knowledge of paths, roads and routes.
(http://www.muslimstoday.info/content/story/arabs-founders-geography)
[vi] The ASI, Government of India has recently published
23 volumes of his reports which run into some five thousand pages. These
provide valuable insight into the history of India, particularly about Hindu
places of worship which were either demolished completely and
masjids and
dargahs
built there on or those converted to
masjids and
dargahs after
removing symbols and signs of Hindu worship.
[vii]
A list of his complete works along with a summary of his biographical memoir is
given in the present book, (xiii-xvi).
[x]
See
preface to the original edition
of the book under review.
[xi] ‘
Etude sur la Geographie et les populations
primitives du Nord-ouest de l’Inde, d’apres les Hymnes Vediques’, Paris,
1850.
[xiii]
Strabo’s Geographia, ii.1.6
[xiv]
Hwen Thsang’s travels extended from 629 AD to 645 AD. He visited most of the
great cities throuout the country from Kabul and Kashmir to the mouths of
Ganges and Indus, and from Nepal to Kanchipura near Madras. He entered Kabul
from the north-west, via Bomian, about the end of May 630 AD and returned to
China crossing Hindu Kush about 644 AD.
[xv] A
Cunningham,
Ancient Geography of India, Cosmo
2007, p.3. Hereafter, the page numbers
of references from this book are shown in the text or footnotes as (AGI with
relevant page numbers).
[xvi]
However, Ptolemy’s description of India is completely distorted. Instead of
showing the acute angle formed by the meeting of the two coasts of the
Peninsula at Cape Comorin is changed to a single coastline, running almost in a straight from the mouth of the
Indus to the mouth of the Ganges. (AGI, p7)
[xvii]
1 British mile is 8.70827286 stadia.
[xviii]
Elphinston,
History of India, intro-
p.1. (AGI, p2.)
[xix] Journal of Asiatic Society, Bengal, (AGI,
p.4)
[xx]
Chinese sources say that India was known to them in the second century BC
during the reign of Emperor Wuti of later Han dynasty. It was then called
Yuan-tu or
Yin-tu that is Hindu,
Shintu,
or
Sindhu. Later it is known as
Thian-tu. India was sometimes called
Magadha, after the name of its best
known and richest province and sometimes the “kingdom of
Brahmanas” after the name of its principal inhabitants. (AGI, 9)
[xxi]
It is found in the official records of Thang dynasty. But, the earliest notice
of it could be found in the year 477 AD when the king of Western India
sent an ambassador to China and again
only a few years later (502 and 504 AD), the
kings of Northern and Southern India followed suit according to their
official records. (AGI, 8&9).
[xxii]
Ptolemy called this city
Kabura or
Ortospana as capital city which was supplanted by Alexandria during the Greek
domination and restored by the Indo-Scythian princes. (AGI p16)
[xxiii]
In Scythian, ‘
ku’ means water.
Historians of Alexander also noticed the River Kophes.
[xxiv]
It was also known as
Ajuna , may be a
corrupt form of
Ujjana in Pali and
Udyana (garden) in Sanskrit. M Vivien de St Martin states that
Udyanapura was te old name of
Nagarahara. (AGI p39)
[xxv]
Strabo called it
Gandharitis and Ptolemy
Gandarae. The Chinese pilgrims
called it
Kien-to-lo.
[xxvi]
Fa Hian called it
Fo-lu-sha or
Parasha.
[xxvii]
Chinese pilgrim Sung Yun says “amongst the topes of western countries this is
the first”. (AGI p67)
[xxviii]
They were
Tangi, Shirpao, Umrazai,
Turangzai, Usmanzai, Rajur, Charsada and Parang. They extend over a
distance of 15 miles.
[xxix]
Ujjana was the Pali form of Udyana.
[xxx]
Subhavastu or Suvastu (Sanskrit) and Suastus of Arian.
[xxxi]
Majjhima in Pali. Madhyantika was the
name of the teacher who was sent to spread Buddhism in Kashmir and the
Himavanta country after the Third Synod conducted during Ashoka’s reign.
[xxxii]
The length of the province along the river Indus from east to west was about
150 miles and breadth about 80 miles
from the mountains of Deoseb to the Karakoram range.
[xxxiii]
Fa-Hian called it
Po-na or
Bana.
[xxxiv]
Hwen Thsang estimated the length of the circuit to be 1166 miles.
[xxxv]
Kamraj was the northern half of the
valley and
Meraj the southern half
.
[xxxvi]
Founded by Asoka (BC 263 to 226).
[xxxvii]
Rajatarangani records that Jaloka,
son of Asoka, built this temple. The hill was then known as
Jyeshteswara. (AGI p81).
[xxxviii]
A strange story is recorded in the Muslim chronicles (Ferishta and Abul Fazl),
a copper plate inscription was found in the debris of a Siva temple destroyed
by Sikandar which reads that the demolition was predicted that the temple would
be destroyed after the expiration of 1100 years by a person named Sikandar.
[xxxix]
Fa Hian called it
Chu-sha-ski-lo means
‘severed head’ based on the legend that the Buddha betowed his head in alms at
this place to a tiger. A
Stupa was built at the site of the ‘head-gift’. The hill range
is named
Margala which means idiomatically, ‘cutting the neck’.
[xl]
Hwen Thsang called it
Ta-cho-shi-la. He
visited in 630 AD and again in 643 AD. (AGI p92).
[xli] Ketaksh might be corrupted form of
Swetavasa or ‘the white robes’ or
Khetavasa . Cunningham says that could
be the holy place for the white-robed Jain sect or Buddhists. Brahmins also
claimed the place for themselves as it was the place where ‘Siva’s eyes rained
when he heard the death of his wife, Sati’.
[xliv]
Ptolemy’s
Kaspaire (
AGI p199)
[xlv]
Hwen Thsang called it
Meu-lo-san-pu-lo which
M. Vivien de St Mrtin transcribed as
Mulasthanipura.
(AGI p197).
[xlvi]
The name might mean “Middle City” to denote it as the capital city. (AGI p210)
[xlvii]
A detailed account of the heroic resistance to Alexander by the Brahman cities
were added by Cunningham (AGI pp225-234)
[xlviii]
Hwen Thsang called it
Kiu-che-lo and its capital,
Pi-lo-mi-lo. (AGI p262).
[xlix]
Hwen Thsang called it
Fa-la-pi. It is
called
Surashtrene by Ptolemy and the
author of ‘Periplus’.
[l]
Karka was fifth in descent from Govinda.
[li]
This Govinda might be the king of Baroda who occupied Ballabhi and
reestablished the old family.
[lii] Mo-hi was identified with
Mahi or
Makwa.
[liii]
Hwen Thsang called it ,
Po-lu-kie-cho-po.
[liv]
Parasu Rama is said to have split blood of the
Kshatriyas in this place. (AGI, p.279). At this place , great
battle took place at this place between Kauravas and Pandavas. The place is
connected with many historical and puranic events some of them are detailed here (AGI p281-283).
[lv]
See
Kurukshetra Mahatmya and Vishnu
Purana
[lvi]
May be the present Rohikhand.
[lvii]
Please note wherever the ‘present’ is
used in the text, it denotes the times of Cunningham , the late 19
th
century.
[lviii]
North
Panchala was Rohilkhand. And
that of South
Panchala was
Kampilya. Drona defeated Drupada and
kept North panchala for himself and allowed Drupada to rule South Panchala.
(AGI p305).
[lix]
Cunningham takes this date for the Mahabharata War.
[lx]
The mound is 3250 ft in breadth at base, about 44 ft high and 2 miles in
circuit.
[lxi]
Haya Mukha means Horse-face. But Cunningham suggests it could also be
Ayomukha
which means iron-face which could the name of one of the
Danavas. (AGI, p 326).
[lxii]
Bakkula was born to a mother in Kosambi when she was bathing in river Jumna.
This infant was swallowed by a fish and the fixh was caught and sold to a noble
family in Benaras. The child was boughtup by the family. After some time
knowing about this, the original mother went to Benaras and claimed the child.
The matter was then referred to the king who judged that the child was
Bakula (belonging to two
kulas or castes) and so he belonged to
two mothers. (AGI, p 332)
[lxiii]
Visakha episode is described by
Cunningham in detail. (AGI, p338-42).
[lxiv]
Cunningham gives a detailed account of this
incident of Buddha’s life. (AGI p
357-61)
[lxv]
Metamorphically called, “to turn the Wheel of Dhamma (Law)”.
[lxvi]
The eight clans of Vrijis:
Vaisali,
Kesariya, Janakpur, Navandgarh, Simrun, Darbanga, Puraniya and Motihari. (AGI,
p 378).
[lxvii]
The chief places are
Buddha-Gaya,
Kukkutapada, Rajagriha, Kusagarapura, Nalanda, Indrasilagruha and
Kapatika monastery.
[lxviii]
The Sanskrit name is Vardhamana. (AGI
p404)
[lxix]
Jajhoti is a corrupt form of
Yajur-hota who
follow Yajur Veda.
[lxx]
Cunnigham discusses at length to come to this understanding with regard to
fixing Dhanakakkota. (AGI pp 447-459).
[lxxi]
Kanchipuram or
Cajeevaram in
Sanskrit.
[lxxii]
His report on the native government and its organization in general and the
governance of capital City in
particular differ from the ‘Artha Sastra’
[lxxiii]
A few maps showing the expedition of Alexander in Sindh and the travels of Hwen
Thsang from the book are given in the appendix as ready reference
[lxxiv]
Mahamahopadhyaya, Dr K Sivananda
Murty (Guruji), ‘Anandavan’,
Bheemunipatnam, A.P. India, (531163)
[lxxv]
Puranas speak of the events happening at earthly plane and other non-earthly
planes also. But History is concerned with the life of human beings on earth.
