Historical Geography of Ancient India

----Y Sudershan Rao[i]

(The ‘Hall of Time’ Digest)

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Title of the Book:      Ancient Geography of India

Name of the Author: Major General Sir Alexander Cunningham                                                                               (A. Cunningham)

Publication:              (First Published in 1871)

                                  Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 2007

                                  Pages: 501, Price: Rs 595/-

                                  ISBN: 81-307-0619-9

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Introduction:

         

            Ancient Indian literature –Vedic, Puranic, Itihasic, Jain, Buddhist, etc—is replete with valuable information regarding this planet Earth, the Solar System, and the Brahmanda. The Puranas also indicate existence of numerous similar Brahmandas beyond ours. The knowledge about this Universe is handed down to us by our great seers of yore. Besides the spiritual pursuits of the seers who ‘received’ the knowledge, common man’s geographical exploration of this planet is also clearly seen from the Itihasas, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which we may call ‘evolved’ knowledge. These Itihasas also vouchsafe that the men had the knowledge of higher worlds and that they had live-interaction with the closer worlds (lokas) – higher and  nether worlds-- like, swarga, yaksa, gandharva, kinnera, naga, patala etc.

The knowledge of these Bharateeya Itihasas was widely spread throughout the world including Americas as claimed by some archaeologists.  India had a brisk trade with as far as Italy in the West, Africa, Arabia and South-East Asia in the proto-historic period dating back to at least 5000 years from now. China and India, being close neighbors, were engaged in regular trade and commerce since centuries before Christ. Buddhist sources tell us that the Indian traders were having trade connections with far off lands braving the high seas. Indian coast was blessed with many natural sea-ports. India was well known for its ship-building industry till as late as 15^th century when Vasco de Gama reached Indian Coast, Calicut, by circumnavigating the Cape of Good Hope[ii].

India had been the most sought after country by the foreigners for its richness in knowledge, culture and wealth. Perhaps, that proved to be more a bane than a boon when we look to our past recorded history from about 3^rd century BC. Alexander’s invasion had stimulated the Greeks’ geographical exploration[iii]. The earlier trade connections facilitated the study of Indian geography by the Greeks and later the Arabs[iv]. Patrokles who was the satrap of north-east Syria collected information regarding India and the Eastern Provinces. Thales, Pythagoras, Strabo, Eratosthenes, Amyntas, Megasthenes and several others explored India.  Pliny and Ptolemy (first and second century AD) dealt the Geography of India. Periplus of Erithrean Sea by an anonymous writer of the first century AD contains the best account of commerce between Red Sea and India. Among Arabs in the middle ages, mention may be made of Ibn Hardazabah who wrote the first book of Islamic geography, Abu al-Faraj Kudamat Ibn Jafar writer of ‘Al-Haraj’, al Masudi, and several other Arabs who were interested in geographical studies.

After Company’s rule was well established in India, British officers took interest in the ancient Indian geography commenting and interpreting classical literature, both indigenous and foreign, from the latter half of 18^th century. M. D’Anville (1753-75), Rennel (1783-93), Mannert (1797), Dr Vincent who translated the Periplus, showed interest in this field. Col. Francis Wilford will be remembered for his first serious attempt to study the ancient geography of India collecting  material from Indian sources. M Viven de Saint-Martin treated in a masterly manner the Vedic, the classical and the Chinese sources of ancient geography of India and Central Asia. Among those Indologists who worked on the ancient geography of India, Sir Alexander Cunningham, deserves a special mention. His Ancient Geography of India has become a standard treatise on the subject. An attempt is made herein to give a brief review of this monumental work on Indian Geography.

About the Author:

            Sir Alexander Cunningham,  (1814- 1893), British army officer (Engineering Corps)  turned archaeologist had excavated many sites in India, including Sārnāth and Sānchi, and served as the first Director of the Indian Archaeological Survey.

At 19, he joined the Bengal Engineers and spent 28 years in the British military service in India, retiring as Major General in 1861. Early in his career he met James Prinsep, a British numismatist, who ‘ignited’ his interest in Indian history and coins. In 1837 Cunningham excavated at Sārnāth, outside Vārānasi (Banaras), one of the most sacred Buddhist shrines, and carefully prepared drawings of the sculptures. In 1850 he excavated Sānchi, site of some of the oldest surviving buildings in India. In addition to a study of the temple architecture of Kāshmir (1848) and a work on Ladākh (1854), he published The Bhilsa Topes (1854), the first serious attempt to trace Buddhist history through its architectural remains.

After his retirement in 1861 from military service, he submitted a Memorandum to Lord Canning, the Governor General of India, in which he outlined the object of the organization of Archaeological Survey of India. He wrote, "It would rebound equally to the honour of the British Government to institute a careful and systematic investigation of all existing monuments of India." [v]  Later, he agreed to become the Director of the Indian Archaeological Survey and remained with it until it was dissolved (1865). Cunningham's duties were defined, in a Resolution, “to superintend a complete search over the whole country and prepare a systematic record and description of all archaeological and other remains that are unique for their antiquity, historical interest or beauty.” Exploration and excavations were the primary functions of the Department between 1861-1885. Cunningham toured almost the entire length and breadth of North India up to Narmada river. He submitted detailed findings about a large number of monuments and historical sites.[vi]  He resumed his post when the Archaeological Survey Department was restored (1870) and during the next 15 years carried out many archaeological explorations among the ruins of northern India. He published The Ancient Geography of India (1871), the first collection of the edicts of Emperor Aśoka of 3rd-century-bc and The Stûpa of Barhut (1879). Over the years he gathered a large collection of Indian coins, the choicest of which were purchased by the British Museum. After his retirement from the survey (1885), he devoted himself to Indian numismatics and wrote two books on the subject.[vii] He was knighted in 1887.[viii]

The work done by Cunningham received a greater fillip during the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon (1899-1905). His interest in Archaeology resulted in the passing of the Ancient Monuments Preservations Act in 1904. In his address to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, he observed: "We have a duty to our forerunners, as well as to our contemporaries and to our descendants, nay, our duty to the two latter classes in itself demands the recognition of an obligation to the former, since we are the custodians for our own age of that which has been bequeathed to us by an earlier, and since posterity will rightly blame us if, owing to our neglect they fail to reap the same advantages that we have been privileged to enjoy".[ix] Cunningham was succeeded by Sir John Marshall who also did yeoman service for the promotion of archaeology in India.

About the Book:

            The book, Ancient Geography of India (AGI), covers the Buddhist period including the campaigns of Alexander and the travels of Hwen-Thsang (Yuan Chwang). The book describes the geography of – Afghanistan, Kashmir and Panjab of Northern India; Sind, Gurjara and Vallabhi (Balabhi) of Western India; Gangetic plains starting from Sthaneswara to Magadha including Malwa and Ujjain of Central India: Kamarupa to Ganjam of Eastern India; and from Kalinga to Maharashtra including Andhra, Dravida and Konkan of Sothern India. Ceylon is also included. Separate notes on (A) Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang’s Travels, (B) Measures of Distances, Yojana, Li, Krosa and (C) Correction of Error in Ptolemy’s Eastern Longitudes are appended. Further, the book contains thirteen valuable maps of ancient India showing the locations of ancient sites, villages and towns. The author dedicated this work “to Major General Sir H C Rawlison, K. C. B. who has himself done so much to throw light on the Ancient Geography of Asia”.

            Cunningham says, “I have not undertaken this work without much previous preparation”. His travels “ have been very extensive throughout the length and breadth of northern India, from Peshawar and Multan near the Indus, to Rangoon and Prome on the Irawadi, and the Kashmir and Ladakh to the mouth of the Indus and the banks of Narbada” during his long service of three decades in India. When he was employed as Archaeological Surveyor after his retirement from the military service, he studied ancient Indian geography and he was “signally successful in fixing the sites of many of the most famous cities of ancient India”. A few of the most prominent of his discoveries are : Aornos, Taxila, Sngola,Srughna,Ahichhatra, Bairat, Sakisa, Sravasti, Kosambi, Padmavati, Vaisali, and Nalanda.[x]

On the lines of the colonial periodisation of  Indian history, he periodised the geography of India as the Brahminical, the Buddhist, and the Muhammadan on the basis of ‘prevailing religious and political character of the period it embraces’. Brahminical period “would trace the gradual extension of the Aryan race over Northern India”. The Buddhist period “would embrace the rise, extension, and decline of the Buddhist faith from the era of Buddha to the conquests Mahmud of Ghazni”. The Muhammadan period “would embrace the rise and extension of Muhammadan power from the time of Mahmud of Ghazni to the battle of Plassey”. M. Vivien de Saint Martin’s valuable essay[xi] covers ancient geography as elicited from the Hymns of the Vedas. H H Wilson in his Ariana Antiqua and Lassen, in his Pentapotamia Indica, refer to the ancient geography of North-west India. M. Stanislas Julien’s translation of the Life and Travels of the Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, helps identifying most of the ancient Buddhist sites. But exact locations were not pinpointed. Similarly, Muhammadan period gives us ample material from their numerous histories of the Muhammadan States of India but no authoritative work was attempted.

Cunningham chose the Buddhist period  for his work “to determine with absolute certainty the sites of many of the most important places in India”.[xii] His ‘chief guides’ were Alexander and Hwen Thsang. Alexander “caused the whole country to be described by men well acquainted with it”.[xiii]  Patrokles who held the east satrapies of the Syrian empire under Seleukas Nikator had further improved this information. These accounts were confirmed by Megasthenes who had actually visited Pataliputra.  Giving a rapid survey of Hwen Thsang’s travels in India[xiv], Cunnigham emphatically said that the Chinese pilgrim was not surpassed by any one in his extensive travels in India. He felt, “the pilgrimages of this Chinese priest forms an epoch of as much interest and importance for the Ancient History and Geography of India, as the expedition of Alexander the Great”. He also found Ptolemy’s account (150 AD)  more valuable for constructing ancient geography of India as “it belongs to a period just midway between the date of Alexander’s campaign (330 BC) and the travels of Hwen Thsang (630 AD).

The Subject Matter:

          The close agreement of the dimensions, given by the Indian informants to the Greeks, with the actual size of the country was so accurate that Cunningham was greatly surprised that “the Indians, even at their early date in their history, had a very accurate knowledge of the form and extent of their native land.”[xv]

Form and Extent of India:

Erotosthenes and other Greek writers[xvi] described India as a rhomboid, or unequal quadrilateral, in shape, with the Indus on the west, the mountains on the north, and the sea on the south and he west. The shortest side was on the west with 13000 stadia or 1493 British miles.[xvii] The length of the country from the west to east (i.e. Indus to the mouth of Ganges) is 16000 stadia or 1838 British miles. The eastern coast from the mouth of Ganges to the Cape of Comorin was reckoned at 16000 stadia or 1838 British miles and the southern coast from Cape of Comorin to the mouth of the Indus was 19000 stadia or 2183 British miles. Megasthenes estimated the distance from southern sea to the Caucusus at 20,000 stadia or 2298 British miles while the modern count from Cape of Comorin to the Hindu Kush is about 1950 miles according to Elphinston[xviii] but when converted into road distance it counts at 2275 miles. Diodorus says, “the whole extent of India from east to west is 28000 stadia and from north to south 32000 stadia,” (AGI, p4) and altogether about 60000 stadia or 6890 British miles.

Wilford[xix] quoting from the epic Mahabharat describes India as an equilateral triangle, which was divided into four smaller equal triangles. The apex of triangle is Cape of Comorin and the base is formed by the line of the Himalaya Mountains. Cunnigham taking clue from this, tried to draw three smaller equilateral triangles within the larger triangle taking a common base of line from Dwaraka in Gujarat in the west to Ganjam on the east coast and projecting the apexes to north-west, north-east and Cape of Comorin in the south and the remaining territory Gangetic plain form the fourth triangle with Himalayan rage as its base. These four triangular divisions would form the larger equilateral triangle of India as described by the epic Mahabharat. Cunningham, however, presumes the date of composition of the epic in the first century AD. He holds that the countries immediately to the west of the Indus belonged to the Indo-Scythians may be included ‘very properly within the actual boundaries of India’.

Brihat Samhita describes India as having nine divisions (Nava-Khanda). Kern, in his preface to Brihat Samhita, states that Varahamihira’s chapter on Geography was ‘almost’ on the lines of Parasaratantra which was much earlier to Brihat Smhita. This description was followed later by the authors of the Puranas. These nine divisions are : Panchala (central), Magadha (east), Kalinga (south-east), Avanta (south), Anarta (south-west), Sindhu-Souvira (west), Harahaura (north-west), Madra (north) and Kouninda (north-east). Cunningham compares this list with the lists given in the Puranas, and finds that “all the lists are substantially the same” despite some ‘sundry repetitions and displacements of names, as well as, many various readings’. Brahmanda and Markandeya Puranas also state the districts in each of the nine divisions. Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas agree with Mahabharata in describing five divisons in detail. Perhaps Mahabharata had taken only five major divisions into consideration to describe India. The nine divisions were: Kurus and Panchalas (central), Kamarupa (Assam), Pundras, Kalingas  and Magadhis (south), Sourastras, Suras, Abhiras, Arbudas, Karushas, Malvas, Souviras, Saindhavas (west) and Hunas, Salwas, Sahalas, ramos, Ambashias and  Parasthas (north). Wilson, referring to Vishnu Purana, states that the Hindus “likened their native country to the lotus-flower, the middle being Central India, and the eight surrounding petals being the other divisions”. (AGI, p11)

          Chinese sources[xx] of seventh century AD also mention only five divisions of India called the East, West, North, South and Central, usually styled as “Five Indies”[xxi]. The same division was adopted by Hwen Thsang in the seventh century. Fah-kai-lih-to, a Chinese work, describes, “this country in shape is narrow towards the south and broad towards the north”, and adds that “the people’s faces are the same shape as the country”. (AGI, p9). Hwen Thsang estimated the circumference of the country to be 90,000 li or 15,000 miles (six li = one mile) which is too high and other  Chinese sources say it is 30,000 li or 5000 miles which is too small.

      Hwen  Thsang notices about eighty kingdoms -- small and large or sovereign and tributary – in India. In Northern India, the major kingdoms were: Kapisa with its capital at Charikar or Alexandria ad Caucasum, Kashmir with its jurisdiction over Panjab, Taxila, and Taki (Sangala) near Lahore ruling over the whole plains of Multan and Shorkot. The Western Provinces were ruled by three kings of Sindh, Balabhi and Gurjjara. In Central and Eastern India, from Sthaneswara to the mouth of Ganges, and from the Himalayan mountains to the banks of the Narbada (River Narmada) and River Mahanadi, the entire country was under the rule of Harshavardhan, the king of Kanoj. In the Southern India, the most powerful king was Pulakesin II of Chalukyan dynasty and other important kingdoms were Maharashtra and Kosala, Kalinga, Andhra, Konkan and Dhanakataka.

The Himalayan range extending from north-west to north-east down the  Indian archipelago and the sea on other three sides form fixed natural boundaries. But its extant towards north-west was changing frequently when powerful kings overstepped the limits. From the time of Alexander down to a late period, greater part of Afghanistan was considered part of India. Pliny did not consider the River Indus as India’s western boundary. Seleukus Niketor gave the region  beyond Indus to Sandrokottus (Chandragupta Maurya) and his grand son Asoka served as the viceroy there for some time. The north-western region was endowed with many Buddhist monasteries as witnessed by Hwen Thsang and the Chinese pilgrim says that the ruler of Kapisa was a Hindu. The eastern Afghanistan, including the whole of Kabul valley, ‘must have been of Indian descent, while the religion was pure Buddhism’. Mahmud of Ghazni persecuted idolaters, both Hindus and Buddhists, and they were driven out of this country, ‘with them the Indian element’. Eastern Ariana which was Hindu and Buddhist finally disappeared according to Cunningham. (AGI p14).

In the Chinese arrangement, the middle and the four primary divisions only are retained. Cunningham adopted the Chinese arrangement as he found it ‘simpler, and more easily remembered’. The five divisions of India known as “Five Indies” are:

1.     Northern India comprising of Panjab, Kashmir, Afghanistan and the states the  west of River Saraswati,

2.     Western India comprising of Sindh, western Rajputana, Kutch, Gujarat and a portion on the lower course of River Narbada,

3.     Central India comprising the Gangetic  provinces from Thaneswar to the Delta and from the Himalayas to the banks of River Narbada,

4.     Eastern India comprising of Assam, Bengal, ,Delta of the River Ganges together with Sambhalpur, Orissa and Ganjam, and

5.     Southern India comprising the whole peninsula from Nasik and the west and Ganjam in the east to the Cape of Comorin (Kanya Kumari).

Northern India

            Northern India consists of three major regions : I) Kaofu or Afghanistan, II) Kashmir and III) Taki or Panjab. The provinces of Northern India beyond the Indus where Indian language and religion were predominant till the rise of Mahmud of Ghazni.

I) Kaofu or Afghanistan

Afghanistan extended from Bamian and Kandahar on the west to the Bholan Pass on the south. This large tract was divided into ten separate states or districts of which Kapisa was the chief. The tributary states were Kabul and Ghazni in the west, Lamghan and Jalalabad in the north, Swat and Peshawar in the east and Banu and Opokien in the south. In the second century BC, the region was known as Kao-fu. Kao-fu was usually identified with Kabul[xxii]. The region would have been divided among Parthians (Kandahar), Indians (Swat, Peshawar and Banu) and Saca Scythians (Kabul, Ghazni with Lamghan and Jalalabad).

1.     Kapisene or Opian : According to Hwen Thsang, the state of Kapisene was about 666 miles in circuit entirely surrounded by mountains; snowy mountains Po-lo-si-na to the north. Po-lo-si-na corresponds to the Mount Paresh or Aparasin of the ‘Zend Avesta’. Pliny states that the ancient capital of Kapisene was C(K)apisa which was destroyed by Cyrus. Ptolemy places Kapisa two and a half degrees north of Kabura or Kabul. At the time of Hwen Thsang’s visit the capital was perhaps Opian. He says it was “distinguished by its huge artificial mounds, from which, at various times, copious antique treasures have been extracted”. (AGI p18) Pliny situates Alexandria ‘at the very foot of Caucasus’ which agrees with the position of Opian. The place was chosen by Alexander on account of its favourable site at the parting of the three roads leading to Bactria. Another town of C(K)artena (of Pliny) or Karsana (of Ptolemy) is also situated at the foot of the Caucusus. It also seems to be in the  immediate vicinity of Alexandria. Cunningham identifies the town with Begram which means ‘the city’. The decline of the city was caused by the gradual desertion of the people, consequent on the transfer of the seat of government to Ghazni after the conquest of the country by  Muhammadans. Coins of the last Hindu Rajas were found in great number succeeded by the later Muslim rulers. Cunningham infers ‘that the city began gradually to decay after the Muhammadan conquest of Kabul by Sabuktugin towards the end of the tenth century. Begram might have been finally destroyed by Chengiz Khan, ‘ a merciless barbarian’. (AGI p26). Cunningham identifies another city, Cadrusi, with the old site of Koratus six miles to the north-east of Begram where remains of old city could be found consisting of mounds covered with fragments of pottery and old coins. There are also remains of masonry works. Ptolemy recorded some other peoples and towns which cannot be traced now. Hwen Thsang says that the language was not Turki but their alphabet was that of Turks, but as the king was Indian it is reasonable to infer that the language might be Indian. (AGI p33)

2.     Kophene or Kabul: Ptolemy mentions the district of Kabul. The length of the district from the sources of the Helmand river to the Jagdalak Pass is about 150 miles and its breadth from Istalif to the sources of the Logarh river is about 70 miles. The district of Kophene, opines Cunningham, might have got its name from the river which flowed through it. Kubha river is mentioned in the Vedas.[xxiii] Ptolemy called these people Kabolita and their capital Kabura. Strabo and Pliny called it Ortospana (Othrospanum of Pliny). H H Wilson suggests that its Sanskritized name might be Urddhasthana (a high place). Chinese pilgrim refers to Vardasthana (district of Wardak tribe) while the province is identified as Hupian or Opian at some distance south of Kabul. Cunningham concludes that both names refer to the immediate neighbourhood of Kabul itself. The position of Ortospana, Cunningham identifies with its Bala Hisar (high fort). It was the old capital of the country before Macedonian conquest. Even in the 10^th century, it was believed “that a king was not properly qualified to govern until he had been inaugurated at Kabul”. (AGI p30). Alexander passed through a city on his way from Arachosia to the site of Alexandria. This town, Cunningham thinks, was Nikaia (stone city) situated near a lake which is peculiar in Northern India to Kabul and Kashmir. The lake was named Astakia after a nymph whom Bacchus had abused. The city is also said to have been called Indophon or ‘Indian Killer’ on account of the victory which Bacchus had gained over the Indians on this spot. Cunningham infers that the present popular name ‘Hindu-kush’ (Hindu killer) is attributed to Indophon. Ptolemy mentions the city of Kabura and the Kabolita  with the towns of Arguda (Argandi), Locharna (Logarh) and Bagarda  along the river Kabul. In the seventh century, the king of Kophene was a Turk, and the language of the country was different from that of the people of Ghazni. Cunnigham conjectures on the lines of Kapisene that the language of Kophene was some dialect of Turki, because the king of the district was a Turk. (AGI p33)

3.     Archosia or Ghazni:  The kindom was 1166 miles in circuit including the whole of south-western Afghanistan with the exception of Kandahar. It had two capitals called Ho-si-na (Ghazni) and Ho-sa-lo.  In the seventh century, the king of Ghazni, who was a Buddhist, was descended from a long line of ancestors. Cunningham infers that their speech ‘was most possibly Pushtu and that the people might have been Afghans’. Ghazni might have been very flourishing by 7^th century. Hwen Thsang estimates the circuit of the town at 5 miles, but the present day (Cunningham’s times) walled town is not more than one mile and a quarter with sides varying from 200 to 400 yards in length, strengthened by numerous towers. Ghazni was famous in the East as a place of strength and security; and for this reason it got its name from Gaza means ‘treasury’ in old Persian. It was known for its impregnability.

4.     Lan-po or Lamghan:  This district was about 100 miles to the east of Kapisene. Cunningham suggests that the original form of the name might be the Sanskrit Lampaka. The district was 166 miles in circuit according to Hwen Thsang with snowy mountains on the north and black hills on the other three sides. It was formerly a separate kingdom; but in the seventh century the royal family was extinct and became a dependent on Kapisene.

5.     Nagarahara or Jalalabad:  Nagarahara[xxiv] was 100 miles in length (east    to west) and 42 miles in breadth (from south to north). It has Jagdalak Pass on the west, and the Khaibar Pass on the east, Kabul river in the north and snowy maintains in the south. It was Ptolemy’s Nagara which was situated midway between Kabura and the Indus. The capital, Hilo, was only three quarters of a mile in circuit situated 2 miles to the west of Jalalabad. There was a stupa where Buddha’s skull bone was deposited. It was exhibited to those who could pay a piece of gold. Situated at 5 miles south of Jalalabad, a tiny village Hidda was well known for its large collection of Buddhist stupas. Cunningham conjectures that the name Hidda might have come from the word Haddi which means bone. (AGI p38). He states that the place containing the skull-bone of Buddha might have been called Asthipura amongst the learned and Haddipura by the common people. It is called Na-kie or Nagara by Fa Hian (5^th century) when it was an independent State. When Hwen Thsang (7^th century) visited it was under Kapisene and later successively became a part of Brahman kingdom of Kabul and the Muhammadan Empire of Ghazni.

6.     Gandhara or Parashawar: The district of Gandhara[xxv] lying along the river Kophes,  between the Choaspes and the Indus. The district was 166 miles from east to west and 133 miles from north to south. The capital which they called Pu-lu-sha-pulo or Parashapura[xxvi] could be identified with the present Peshawar which was known till the Akbar’s times as Parashawar. Fa Hian states that this city was 112 miles away from Nagarahara. Parashawar or Peshawar was considered a holy town for Buddhists. The town was known for having venerated ‘begging bowl’ of Buddha and the holy Pipal tree one and a half mile to the south-east of the city. The tree was 100ft high. The tree was planted by Kanishka and the Chinese plgrim Sung-Yun called it Pho-thi (Bodhi).There was an enormous Stupa by the side of the tree built by Kanishka. The Stupa was 400ft high and one quarter of a mile in circumference.[xxvii] It contained a large quantity of relics of Buddha. The adjoining  monastery had become celebrated amongst the Buddhists through the fame of Arya-Parswika, Manorhita and Vasubandhu , three great leaders and teachers of Buddhism. It was still a flourishing center of education till 10th century when Vira Deva of Magadha was sent to the “great Vihara of Kanishka whre the best of teachers were to be found, and which was famous for the quietism of its frequenters.” (AGI p68). The monastery was known as Gor-Kotri (a Baniya’s house) where “Jogis of the Hindus …. come from great distances to cut off their hair and shave their beards” reported Babur in his Memoirs.

The other towns of the district cited by Ptolemy and Alexander’s historians are not identified. So, Cunningham tried to follow the routes of Fa Hian and Hwen Thsang and describes the sites visited by the Chinese pilgrims. Gandhara is known from the times of Puranas and Epics. The ancient capital of Gandhara was Pushkalavati founded by Pushkara, son of Bharata and the nephew of Rama according to Vishnu Purana. During the Alexander’s times, it was a very large and populous country. Its king Astes (Hasti) died in defence of his kingdom against the Greeks after a thirty-days siege. There were “Eight Cities”[xxviii] named as Hasthanagar seated close together on the eastern bank of the lower Swat River. They might be originally portions of a large town. The fort of Histr stands on a mound above the ruins of the old town of Hashtanagar. General Court says, “All the suburbs are scattered over with vast ruins”. (AGI p43). There were remains of some early town known as Palodheri (a village of Pali situated on dheri or mound of ruins). It was 40 miles from Pushkalavati. There is a great cave of Kashmiri Ghar in the hill to the north-east. In the cave of hill  Dantaloka,  prince Sudana and his wife took refuge. U-to-kia-han-cha (Udakhanda of Julien), also known as Hund or Ohind is situated on the north bank of the river Indus, about 15 miles above Attok. Cunningham suggests that the original name of the town, Utakhanda or Ut-khand was softened to Uhand or Bhithanda and then shortened to Uhand  or Ohind, which he believes was the capital of the Brahman kings of Kabul whose dynasty was extinguished by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026 AD. He says that constant encroachments of Indus river might have swept away major portion of the town.  So-lo-tu-lo or Salatura or Lahor is 4 miles to  Ohind, the birth place great grammarian, Panini. Cunningham also tried to identify the towns like Aoronos with Varanasi belonging to Raja Vara, adjacent to this there was Rani-gat above Nogram (or Queen’s rock) where Raja Vara’s Rani used to sit daily on this high seat. He further identifies Bazaria, Aoros and Embolima (Greek names) to Bazar, Rani-gat and Ohind. Bazar was a large village situated on the banks of Kalpan or Kali-pani, a place of consequence for its trade and commerce. (AGI p56). This district is known for ‘several renowned places of ancient India; some celebrated in the stirring history of Alexander’s exploits, and others famous in the miraculous legends of Buddha, and in the subsequent history of Buddhism under the Indo-scythian prince Kanishka,’ says Cunningham. (AGI p41). The town Pushkalavati was famous for a large Stupa which was erected on the spot where Buddha was said to have made an ‘offering of his eyes’. (AGI p44).

7.     Udyana or Swat:  U-chang-na or Udyana[xxix] is situated on the river Su-po-fa-su-tu[xxx] presently known as Swat or Suat. The country was described as highly irrigated and very fertile. Swat was second only to the far-famed valley of Kashmir. Hwen Thsang estimates that it was 833 miles in circuit covering all the tributaries of River Swat. The legend of ‘the hawk and the pigeon’ in which Buddha, to save a pigeon tears his own flesh and offers to hawk, is connected to this region. Fa-Hian says that Buddha was then a king named Shi-pi-ka or Sivika. The capital of Udyana was called Mung-kie-li or Mangala. There was a celebrated wooden statue of future Buddha, Maitreya, which was erected after 300 years of the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha. It was 100 ft high according Hwen Thsang,erected by Madhyantika[xxxi] school. (AGI p70)

8.     Bolor or Balti:  This district was 666 miles in circuit and its greatest length being from east to west.[xxxii] The district was surrounded by snowy mountains and produced large quantity of gold. Balti still is famous for gold washings.

9.     Falana or Banu : Its original name was Varana or Barna.[xxxiii] It was 666 miles in circuit and placed to the south-east of Ghazni. The district was chiefly composed of mountains and forests. The language of the people resembled that of Central India.

10.  Opokien or Afghansitan: Opokien lies between Falana and Ghazni. Cunningham was inclined to identify Opokien or Avakan with Afghan.

II Kingdom of Kashmir

In the seventh century, the kingdom was comprising of Kashmir valley and also the whole of hilly country between the Indus and the Chenab to the foot of the Salt range in the south. Its extended circuit was no less than 900 miles[xxxiv]. There were six sub-regions under this kingdom which were either directly ruled from Kashmir or ruled by small chieftains owing allegiance to the king of Kashmir. They were 1) Kashmir proper, 2) Urasa, 3) Taxila, 4) Sinhgapura, 5) Punacha and 6) Rajapura.

1)    Kashmir: Kashmir proper is surrounded by lofty mountains which is 300 miles in circuit. From the earliest times Kashmir was divided into two large districts of Kamraj  and Meraj.[xxxv] Hwen Thsang sais that the king was Brahmanical while the queen patronized Buddhism. Queen Anangalekha built a Vihara after her name, Anangabhavana, while the king built a temple to Vishnu, called after himself, Durlabha-swamina. The people of Kashmir were good looking but the pilgrim commented on their character negatively. The principal ancient cities of Kashmir were: Srinagari[xxxvi] (the old capital), Pravarasenapura (new capital), Khagendrapura and and Khunamusha, built before the time of Asoka, Vijipura  and Pantasok (Asoka’s times), Surapura , restoration of ancient Kambuva, Kanishkapura, Hushkapura, and Jushkapura named after the three Indo-Scythian Princes by whom they were founded, Parihasapura, built by Lalitaditya, Padmapura, named after Padma, the minister of Raja Vrihaspati, and Avantipura , named after Raja Avanti Varmama. The oldest temple in Kashmir, Jyeshta Rudra, was found on the top of the Takht-i-Suliman.[xxxvii] Srinagari also had two Asokeswara temples ! Towards the end of 5^th century, Pravarasena II built the new capital, Pravarasenapura, and he also built a temple for God Siva after his name, Pravareswara. There were many Siva temples in the valley. The Muhammadans destroyed them.[xxxviii]

2)    Urasa: The district of U-la-shi or Urasa was a mountainous district in the vicinity of the valley. The district was 333 miles in circuit. The principal towns of the district were Mansera, in the north-east; Noshahra, in the middle, and Kishangarh or Haripur.

3)    Taxila or Takshasila: The district of Taxila[xxxix] was 333 miles in circuit. It was bounded by the Indus on the west, by the district of Urasa on the north, the Jhelam river on the east and Sinhapura on the south. Hwen Thsang[xl] visited twice this city. He describes the city that it was one and a half mile in circuit. Cunningham identifies the site of the ancient city with the ruins near Shah-dheri. The ruins of ancient habitats covering over an area of six square miles, now known as Bir, Hatial, Sir-Kap-ka-kot, Kacha-kot, Babar khana and Sir-Suk-ka-kot might be included in ancient city of Taxila. Manikyala had a great Stupa where Buddha offered his body to a starving tiger. The Stupa was built by Raja Man on whose name the Stupa was erected and a city, Maniknagar or Manikur came up.

4)    Singhapura or Ketas: The district was 600 miles in circuit. On the west it was bounded by the Indus, on the north by the southern frontier of Taxila, and on the south by the Jhelam and on the north Taki. The capital of Singhapura was identified with the ruined fort  of Kotera or the area around holy tanks of Ketaksh or Khetas[xli]. The circuit of the town was less than three quarters of a mile. The holy place was claimed by the Jains, Buddhists and Brahmins.

5)    Punacha or Punach The district of Punacha or Punach[xlii] was 333 miles in circuit. It is bounded by Jhelum on the west, Pir Panchal range on the north, Rajaori on other sides. It formed part of the kingdom of Kashmir on several occasions.

6)    Rajapura or Rajaori :  The circuit of the district was about 667 miles. The petty principalities were mostly dependent on Kashmir. Rajapuri is frequently heard from the medieval period. (AGI p109).

Cunningham adds ‘a brief outline of the petty states now shown under Panjab. They were twenty–two Muhammadan and twenty-two Hindu states. These states were under the control of three major kingdoms of the region, Kashmir, Dogra and Trigartta. Most of the Hindu rulers claim their origin to Surya Vamsa or Soma Vamsa and owe their allegiance to Rajputs or kings of Kashmir. As the Muhammadans advanced, these rajas left the plains and settled in the hills. Jalandhara, genrally known as Kangra, was about 167 miles from east to west and 133 miles from north to south. According to Padma Purana, Jalandhara was a powerful daitya king who became invincible through his penance. He was overwhelmed by Siva and crushed to death under the heap of mountains. The royal family of Jalandhara and Kangra was one of the oldest in India. The other chief kingdoms were Champa, Kullu, Mandi and Sukhet, Nurpur or Pathania and Satadru. (AGIp100).

III Taki or Panjab:

 The kingdom of Tse-kia, in the seventh century embraced the whole of the plains of Panjab from the Indus to the Biks and from the foot of the mountains to the junction of the five rivers below Multan. Takin might be intended for the hills of Panjab. Taki or Panjab was divided into  Taki, Bukhephala, Shorkot and Multan. The province of Taki comprised the plains of the Panjab, Multan in the place of Doab and Multan in the lower portions.

1.     Taki, or Northern Panjab: Taki contained ‘several of the most celebrated places –some connected to Alexander’s invasion, some famous in Buddhist history and others were known for the widely traditions of the people. Jobnathnagar or Bhira, the city of Raja Jobnath or Chobnath which was described by the Greek historians, was identified with Porus by Cunningham.

2.     Bukephala or Dilwar: It was the site of the defeat of Porus which was contested by many. Bukhephala was also one along with Jhelam, Nikoie or Mong and Jalalpur. Cunningham presents a long discussion on the identification of the historic meet between Porus and Alexander. He gives Arrian’s account of the battle.[xliii] Cunningham says that the city of Bukhephala was where Alexander had crossed the river. Mong might be the city which Alexander built at the site of his victory. Sakala and Sagala were also very famous sites in respect of Puranic and Buddhist accounts.  In the beginning of Christian era, Sagala was the capital of Raja Milinda very famous among the Buddhists. Sakala was subject to Mihirkul who lost his kingdom to Baladitya, the king of Magadha. The region could boast of several ruins of cities and monasteries at Ran-si, Nara-Sinha, Asarur, Ambakapani or Amakatis etc. At Asarur, ruins of an extensive mound 3 miles in circuit with 59 ft high was found which includes royal palaces. The city of Lahor or Lohawar was the capital of Panjab for nearly 900 years. Lo, Lava, son of Rama, is said to have constructed the city. Another city Kusawar or Kasur was founded by Rama’s another son, Kusa.

3.     Shorkot: The province was 531 miles in circuit. There are several important towns and many ruined mounds, the remains of many cities. Shorkot and Kot Kamalia in Rchna Doab, Harapa, Akbar and Satgarha in Bari Doab and Depalpur and Ajudhan in Doab Jalandhar Pith are included. The foundation of Shorkot was attributed to a fabulous Raja Shor about whom nothing is known. Kot Kamalia was a small ancient town. Kota Kamalia and Harapa were among those cities which fell to Greek army. Most of these towns were destroyed in Muhammadan invasions.

4.     Multan: It is the southern province of Panjab. There were 17 paraganas during Akbar’s reign. In Multan division old sites are numerous. To name a few, Tulamba, Atari and Mutan in Bari Doab, Kahror at Jalandhar Pith, and Uchh at Junction, Ruins at Tulamba indicate that it might have been a strong fortress in ancient times. The old town was plundered and burnt by Timur. Atari had a great citadel which fell to Alexander. Alexander went completely round the citadel in a boat. The ditch was so wide and deep. Multan was a walled city. The citadel was an irregular semi-circle. Multan was known by several names which all connect to either to Vishnu or Sun. It was known as Kasyapapura[xliv] founded by Kasyapa father of Daitya and Adityas. He was succeeded by Hiranyakasyapa. It was also known as Prahladapura named after his son Prahlada. The kingdom of Multan was occupied by Lord Krishna and his son, Samba was mae its ruler. So it was known as Sambapura. Several traditions are connected to this place. There was a temple with golden statue of Sun which was famous throughout the country and offerings were pouring into temple, reports Hwen Thsang. It was known as Golden Temple. Multan might have derived from the word Mulasthana[xlv] . A detailed account of the siege of Multan by Alexander is added by Cunningham. (AGI p 199-203. The heroic resistance by the Indians was appreciated by the Greek chronicles. Alexander was wounded in this battle. Another town Uchh (Sanskrit Uccha meaning ‘High’) was on at a height from the plains. It is “distinguished by the ruins of the former towns, which are very extensive, and attest the pristine prosperity of the locality” says Masson. (AGI p204).

Western India

In the seventh century, Western India had three major divisions –I) Sindh, II) Gurjjara and III) Balabhi.

I) Sindh:

Sindh comprised the whole valley of the Indus from the Panjab to the sea including the delta and the island of Kachh. The region is divided into four principalities, as 1) Upper Sindh, 2) Middle Sindh, 3) Lower Sindh and 4) Kuchh. After the Alexander’s invasion, this was under the rule  of Ayand, son of Kajand. At that time these three principalities were known as Zor, Askalanduza, Samid and Lohana. During the times of Hwen Thsang, these four districts formed parts of one kingdom under the Raja of Upper Sindh.

1.     Upper Sindh: Generally known as Siro (Head or Upper) is 1167 miles in circuit. Its capital was named, Pi-chen-po-pu-lo (Vichavapura or Vichalapura).[xlvi] In upper Sindh, only places of ancient note are Alor, Ravi-Bhakar and Mahoria, near Larkahana. In the Alexander’s campaign, Massana, the Sogdi, the Musikani, and the Prasti  are known.

2.     Middle Sindh: It was generally known as Vichalo (Midland). Its circumference was 417 miles. The chief city, O-fan-cha, has ruins of an ancient city called Bambhra-ka-Tul or Ruined Tower. According to tradition, it was the site of once famous city of Brahmanavas or Brahmanabad. At present, the principal places in this division of Sindh are Sehwin, Hala, Haidarabad and Umarkot. But under Hindu rule, the great cities were Sadusan, Brahmana or Brahmanwas and Nirunkot. Nirunkot was most probably Haidarabad and the ancient Pattala. The places mentioned in the time of Alexander were Sindomana, and a city of Brahmans named Harmatelya. Alexander on his return march appointed Raja Sambus of Brahmanabad who submitted to him, as his Satrap for the hilly region. But his people, Brahmans, revolted and shut themselves in the fort. But Greeks,by stratagem induced them to come out and in the conflict ensued they were to death. It was the last city of Brahmins who opposed Alexander.[xlvii] Alexander during his stay at Delta, caused many new cities to come up.

3.     Lower Sindh: The district was 500 miles in circuit. Hwen Thsang mentions only one city namely Pitasila or Patala. The historians of Mohammad Bin Kasim add Debal and Nirankot. The king of Patala though submitted to Alexander, rebelled after Alexander left the place. Alexander had to come back to subdue him. Such troubles vexed Alexander on his way back.  A little town of Jarak has ruins of great temples, and Stupas. Debal was a celebrated sea-port.  Debal means simply a temple.

4.     Kuchh: The district was 267 miles in circuit. Its capital was Alor 

Cunningham gives particulars of other districts to the west of the Indus connected to Alexander, such as Arabil or Arabitae, Oritae etc. (AGI, 256-262)

II Gurjjara :

            The second kingdom in western India, Gurjjara[xlviii], was about 300 miles to the north of Balabhi and 467 miles to the north-west of Ujjain. The capital was Balmer. The kingdom was 833 miles in circuit. Its boundaries were extending about 130 miles on the north from Balar or Sirdarkot to Junjhnu, 250 miles on the east from Junjhnu to near Mount Abu, 17 miles on the south from Abu to near Umakot and 310 miles from Umakot to Balar. The region forming part of Rajaputana and Panjab was well known for its silver mines which attracted enemies from outside, the Arabs, Ghazni and Ghor rulers besides compatriots. So they used to maintain strong cavalry always. The inscriptions tell us that it was under the rule of Gurjjara kings from about 4^thcentury AD. Most of these inscriptions connect them to mid 5^th century. Their earliest inscription states a record of grant to Brahmins dwelling in the town of “Jambasura” (AGI, p.266). The Gurjjars had pushed their conquests as far south as the banks of the river Narbada in 458 AD. The Gurjjara  king Sri Datta Kusali made several grants of land to certain Brahmins in the district of Akrureswara near Jambusara which Cunningham identifies with Aklesar on the south bank of Narbada. (AGI p271). He further says that the natives did not call the province Gujarat at his times but they called it either Surat or Kathiwar.

III Valabhadra or Balabhi

            In the seventh century, the kingdom of Balabhi was 1000 miles in circuit. The ruins of famous city of Balabhi[xlix] were discovered by Tod near Bhaonagar on the eastern side of the Peninsula of Gujarat. An inscription of 5^th century describes “the beautiful kingdom of Valabhadra” but it is generally known as Balabhi.  (AGI, p266-67). But the inscription of 812 AD of Raja of Karka[l] refers to the ancestor of the king, Govinda[li], as “ornament of Sourashtra” kingdom. Again Karka’s father Lateswara himself identifies his kingdom with Balabhi. Cunningham concludes that the old name of Saurashtra was lost in 319 AD when the successors of Saka kings were supplanted by Vallabhas and the capital changed from Junagarh to Valabhi. (AGI, p267). The Ballabhis who were expelled by Govinda founded a new kingdom in Chitore. The second in succession, Guhila or Guhaditya, gave his name to his tribe, Guhilawat or Guhilat. About the same time, a chief of Chaura tribe, named Bana Raja or the ‘Jangal lord’ founded a city on the banks of Saraswati called Analwara Pattan. About 720 AD, Krishna, the Pahlava king, built the fort of Elapura “the beauty of which according to the inscription, astonished the immortals”. (AGI, p 268).  He also constructed a Siva temple in this new city which was usually called Pattan Somnath. Cunningham was inclined to identify this Elapura with Somnath. We come to know much about this temple which was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. Ferishta describes the city of Somnath as situated “on a narrow peninsula, washed on three sides by the sea.” (AGI p 269). After destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni, city of Somath lost its importance and Analwar became capital city when Mahmud of Ghor invaded this country. Balabhi was a large kingdom including the whole of peninsula of Surashtra and the districts of Surat and Bharoch.

1.     Surashtra :  Su-la-cha or Suratha was dependent on Balabhi. Its capital, Junagarh, was situated at the foot of Mount Ujjanta (Girnar Hill). The province was small, but very rich, and had the ocean to the south. Surath was 667 miles in circuit and touched the river Mo-hi [lii]on the west. In spite of the fame of Balabhi, the old name of Surath was still applied to the whole peninsula so late as 640 AD. (AGI p 274).

2.     Bharoch  or Baryagaza : The district Barukachwa[liii] was 400-417 miles in circuit. Its chief city, Bharoch  (Bhrugu-Kachha or Bharu-Kachha) was on the bank of Narbada river  and close to sea.

Central India

            According to Hwen Thsang, the Central India extended from the Satlej to the head of the Gangetic Delta and from the Himalayan Mountains to the Narbada and Mahanadi rivers. It comprised “of all the richest and most populous districts of India, with an exception of the Gangetic Delta or Bengal Proper” says Cunningham. (AGI, p 276). ‘Of the seventy separate states of India in the seventh century, no less than thirty-seven, or rather than one-half belonged to Central India’. Cunningham chose to ‘follow the footsteps of Hwen Thsang’ who visited all these states in Central India for his description. According to Hwen Thsang the entire Central India was under the suzerainty of Harsha Vardhana of Pushyabhuti dynasty.

1.     Sthaneswara : Sthaneswara was the capital of a separate kingdom which was a tributary of Harsha. The province was 1167 miles in circuit extending from the Satlej to the Ganges. The town of Sthaneswar ( Thaneswar) consists of an old ruined fort, about 12000 sq ft. at top, with the modern town on a mound to the east. According to tradition, the town was built by Raja Dilip, a discendent of Kuru. The name Sthaneswar is said to be derived from the Sthana,(Mahadeva). Sthanu and Iswara, both, are His names. All the country between the Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers is known as Kuru-kshetra, the land of Kuru who is said to have become an ascetic on the bank of the lake known as Brahma-Sar, Rama-hrad[liv], Vayu, or Vayava-Sar and Pavan-Sar. The old town of Prithudaka was situated on the banks of Saraswati, 14 miles to the west of Thaneswar which is connected to the famous Prithu Chakravarti who was the first person to get the title of Raja.[lv] Five miles to the south of Thanewar, there is a large and lofty mound called Amin which is said to be the place where Chakravyuha was arranged in which Abhimanyu  son of Arjuna was murdered by Kauravas. There is also a Surya-kund with a temple to Aditi.

2.     Bairat: In the seventh century, the country was 500 miles in circuit.   Bairat included the greater part of present Jaipur. The city of Paryatra or Bairat is also pronounced as Virat , the capital of Matsya . The capital was two and a half miles in circuit. The Pandavas took refuge when they were in exile. The residence of Bhim is shown on the top of a long low rocky hill about one mile to the north of the town. This country has long been famous for its copper mines. The city was plundered and ruined by Mahmud of Ghazni.

3.     Srughna: Kingdom Srughna was 1000 miles in circuit. Now known as Sughan and Sugh, the village of  Sugh “occupies one of the most remarkable positions that I met with during the whole course of my researches” says Cunningham. (AGI, p 291). In shape it is almost a triangular, with a large projecting fort or citadel at each of the angles and surrounded on three sides by the bed of the old Jamuna river.

4.     Madawar:  The kingdom of Madawar (Madipura)[lvi] was 1000 miles in circuit. The king of Madawar was a Sudra who worshippd Devas and cared nothing for Buddhism according to Hwen Thsang. The capital, Madipura , was in Western Rohikhand. On the north-western frontier, a town called  Mayura was situated where there was a great temple called “the gate of the Ganges” known as Ganga-dwara, old name of Haridwara. Cunningham discussed the dispute about the place which was known both ways as  Haradwara and Haridwara. (AGI pp295-299).

5.     Bramhaputra :  The kingdom of  Brahmaputra was 667 miles in circuit including the whole of the hill-country between the Alakananda and Karnali rivers which is now known as British Garhwal and Kumaon districts.

6.     Govisana or Kashipur:  The district of Govisana was 333 miles in circuit including the present [lvii] districts of  Kashipur, Rampur and Pillibhit. Cunningham infers that the old fort near the village Ujain  represents the ancient city of Govisana. The fort had a peculiar form. It may be compared to the body of a guitar, 3000 ft in length and 1500 ft in breadth and the circuit was less than two and a half miles.

7.     Ahichhatra:  The district Ahichhatra was about 500 miles in circuit comprising eastern half of Rohilkhand[lviii]. The city Ahicchatra was just 3 miles in circuit. Its antiquity goes back to BC 1430[lix] when it was the capital of northern Panchala. The local legend of Adi Raja and Naga who formed a canopy over his head when asleep is connected to the founding of this kingdom. Drona of Mahabharata found him sleeping under the guardianship of serpent predicted that he would become a king in future.  The fort is called Adikot.

8.     Piloshana:  Piloshana was about 250 miles in circuit extending from Bulandshahar to Firuzabad and the Jumna and Kadirganj on the Ganges. Cunningham was “led to believe that Soron  was the only place in this vicinity of great antiquity.” (AGI p307). The place was originally called Ukala Kshetra. Here the demon Hiranyaksha was killed by Vishnu in the form of a Boar . Later its name changed to Sukara (‘the place of good deed’). The ancient town is represented by a ruined mound called the Kilah or fort.[lx] The original settlement of the place is very much older and attributed to the fabulous Raja Vena Chakravarti who plays a conspicuous part in all the legends of North Bihar, Oudh and Rohilkhand.

9.     Sankisa :  Sankisa might be 220 miles in circuit with Ganges and Jamuna on the north and south. Sankisa town was about 3 miles in circuit. It was one of the most famous places of Buddhist pilgrimages. The Buddhist legend says that Buddha descended at this place through a gold staircase accompanied by Indra and Brahma from the Trayastrinsa heaven after preaching the Law of Buddha to his mother Maya. There was a monastery here.  Sankisa was deserted from 1800 to 1900 years ago and the site was given to a body of Brahmins in about 560 years ago. Hwen Thsang said that many tens of thousands of Brahmins dwelt around the mound. The village was wholly populated by Brahmins as reported by him. (AGI p 14).

10.  Mathura:  Mathura was the capital of a large kingdom which was about 833 miles in circuit. It includes the present district of Mathura with the small states of Bharatpur, Khiraoli and Dholpur and the northern half of the Gwalior.  The holy city of Mathura is connected with the history of Krishna. Vrindavana (grove of basil trees) is situated at 6 miles from Mathura. It is famed as the place of Krishna’s sports with the milkmaids.

11.  Kanoj: Kanoj including all the country between Kairabad and Tanda on the Ghagra and  Etawa and Allahabad on the Jumna might be 600 miles in circuit. The great city of Kanoj was the Hindu capital of the most part of northern India for many hundreds of years. It was the capital of Harsha Vardhana in seventh century. The ancient city of 7^th century had a length of 3 miles with 1 mile breadth. Within these limits are found all the ruins that still exist to point out the position of the once famous city of Kanoj. (AGI p322)

12.  Ayuto : Ayuto was a small tract lying between Kakupur and Cawnpur and it was 83 miles in circuit. Kakupura, the capital, was once a large city with a Raja of its own. The ruined mound indicate a fort named Chhatrapur, found by Raja Chhatra Pal Chandel some 900 years ago. There were two famous temples dedicated to Kshireswara Mahadeva   and Aswathama , son of Drona of Mahabharata. (AGI p3 25).

13.  Hayamukha : Cunningham says Haya Mukha[lxi] might have comprised the whole of the present Baiswara which lies  between Sai and the Ganges rivers from Cawnpore to Manikpur and Solon. The principality was about 417 miles in circuit. Cunningham identifies the town, Hayamukha, with Daundia-khera, which 3 miles in circuit.

14.  Prayaga: Cunningham says that Prayaga might have been a small tract in the fork of the Doab, immediately above the junction of the Ganges and Jumna. It might be 83 miles in circuit. The city of Prayag (now known as Allahabad) was existing during the Asokan times. It got its name from the “tree of prag” which was placed in the centre of the city. It is a great pilgrimage centre for the Hindus.

15.  Kosambi: The district of Kosambi might be 100 miles in circuit. It is said that  present Kosambi stands on the actual site of ancient Kosambi which was also mentioned in Ramayana. Kosam was the actual site of the once famous Kosambi. The present ruins of Kosambi consist of immense fortress formed of earthen ramparts and bastions with a circuit of 4 miles and 3 furlongs. A legend of infant, Bakkula, is connected to this place.[lxii]           

16.  Kusapura : Cunningham identifies Kusapura with the present Sultanpur which was one and a half mile in circuit. Kusapura is named after Rama’s son Kusa. The site was in a strategic place being surrounded by Gomati river on three sides. Eighteen miles from Kusapur, there is a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage called Dhopapapura. (AGI, p 338).

17.  Visakha, Saketa or Ajudhya : The district might be 67 miles in circuit comprising of small tract lying around Ajudhya, between the Ghagra and Gomati rivers. Visakha city might be two and a half miles in circuit. Cunningham identifies that all these names, Visakha, Saketa and Ajudhya denote the same site, the capital of Sri Rama. Visakha,[lxiii] the most celebrated of all females in Buddhist history was a resident of Saketa before her marriage with Purna Vardhana, son of Mrigara, the rich merchant of Sravasti. Her father, also a rich merchant called Dhana Deva migrated from Rajagriha to Saketa. Visakha erected a Purvarama at Sravasti where Buddha stayed for 16 years and 9 years in Jetavana according to Ceylonese account.

18.  Sravasti : In the seventh century, the kingdom of Sravasti might be comprising all the country lying between Himalayas and the Ghagra river, from the Karnali river on the west to the mountain of Dhaolagiri and Faizabad on the east, 600 miles in circuit. The city Sravasti is said to have been built by Raja Sravasta, the son of Yuvanaswa of solar race long before Rama. Cunningham says, “Its foundation, therefore, reaches to the fabulous ages of Indian history. Purana assigns the city to Lava after Rama. Again it gains importance during the times of Buddha when it was the capital of King Prasenajit, the king of Maha Kosala. He took to Buddhism. But his son, Virudhaka hated the race of Sakyas and his invasion of their country and subsequent massacre of 500 maidens who had been selected for his harem brought forth a prediction of Buddha that within seven days the king would be consumed by fire. The prediction came true. Sravasti during Hwen Thsang’s times, was under the rule of King Vikramaditya who became a persecutor of Buddhists. Buddhist scholar, Manorhita was worsted by Brahmins in arguments and he was put to death. But his son, Vasubandhu, a great Buddhist scholar, defeated Brahmin scholars during the reign of the successor to Vikramaditya. (AGI, p 347).

19.  Kapila: Kapila was 667 miles in circuit stretching over a tract lying between the Ghagra and Gandak from Faizabad to the confluence of those rivers. The capital city, Kapila, is the birth place of Gotama. According to Buddhist chronicles, Kapilavastu or Kapilanagara was founded by some descendents of the solar hero Gotama on the bank of a lake near the river Rohini in Kosala. Kapila might also refer to sage Kapila whose hermitage was also on the bank of the lake opposite city. The river Rohini was flowing between the cities of Kapila and Koli which was the birth place of Maya Devi. It was also called Vyaghrapura. About 33 miles from Kapila, the Chinese travelers found a city called Ramagrama. This site is connected with the division of Buddha’s relics into eight parts and the entire casket was washed away by the river and reached ocean where nagas have retrieved it and presented to their king who built a stupa. (AGI, p 355-6). The river Anoma was famous in the history of Buddhism as the scene of Prince Siddhartha’s assumption of the dress of an ascetic, where he cut off his hair.[lxiv]  At Pippalavana, a stupa was erected over the charcoal ashes of the funeral pile of Buddha. The Moriyas of the city, having applied too late for a share in the relics of the body were obliged to be content with the ashes. (AGI, p 362).

20.  Kusinagara: Kusinagara, the capital city, was about 2 miles in circuit and it was in ruins when Hen Thsang visited in 7^th century. The place was also deserted. The spot where Buddha attained Nirvana, Cunningham believes, might have been the site where the present stupa stands and ruins now called Matha-kuar-ka –kot or the “fort of the Dead Prince” might be the place where his body was burnt. The Buddhists believe that Buddha attained Nirvana on the full-moon day of Visakha in 543 BC. Hwen Thsang left for Banaras from this place. On the way, he halted at a large town where a Brahman devoted to Buddhism offered him hospitality. The town is not identified. It might be Khukhundo  or Kahaon near Rudrapur. All this region was dominated by Brahmin presence. According to Ceylonese chronicles, Buddha stopped at Pawa before he reached Kusinagara. Between Pawa and Kusinagara, Buddha bathed in a stream called Kukuttha. This stream could be identified as the present Barhi or Barhi Nala. Pawa was given a share of Buddha’s relics along with other seven major cities. (AGI, p366).

21.  Varanasi or Banaras :  The kingdom of Varanasi was 667 miles and the capital city was 3 miles in circuit on the left bank of Ganges between the Barna or Varana on the north-east and Asi Nala on the south-west. Barna is a considerable rivulet but Asi is mere a brook.The joint name Varanasi may have communicated its name to the city. The points of junction of both streams with the Ganges are considered particularly holy, and accordingly temples are erected at both Sangam places. The earliest name of Varanasi was Kasi which is still in common use and also popular as Kasi-Banaras. Kasi-raja was one of the early progenitors of Lunar race. Banaras is also a celebrated city for Buddhists for their Teacher gave his ‘First Sermon’ here, [lxv]at a place called Saranath.

22.  Gajapatipura: About 50 miles to the east of Banaras, the present Ghazipura (Garjpur) might be the Gajapatipura, the capital of a district about 333 miles in circuit lying between the Ghagra on the north and the Gomati on the south, from Tanda on the west to the confluence of the Ganges and Ghagra. In Gajapatipura, there existed a monastery called Avidhakarna (“pierced ears”). Still a small village one mile away from the monastery is called Avidhakarna-pura. The confluence of Ganges and Ghogra was considered holy by the Brahmans and numerous temples were erected. One such temple was that of Narayana or Vishnu. To the east of the temple, was a monastery which is considered as the spot where Buddha had overcome and converted certain evil Demons. (AGI, p 371).

23.  Vaishali: The kingdom of Vaisali, Cunningham says, along with the neighboring kingdom of Vriji might be about 800 miles in circuit. Both of the states are placed between the mountains and the Ganges. Raja Visala was the founder of Vaisali . The fort in ruins could be found in a village called Besarah. The royal palace was about 3500 to 4400 feet in circuit. The people of Vaisali were called Lichhavis. Lichhavi, Vaideha and Tirabhukti are synonymous. Vaideha is well known since Ramayaa times as a common name to  Mithila. Tirabhukti is the present Tirahut. The modern town of Janakpur in the Mithari district is considered the capital of Mithila. Vrijis were a large tribe divided into several branches, namely Lichhavi of Vaisali, the Vaidhis of Mithila, the Tirabhuktis of Tirhut, etc.,.

24.  Vriji: According to Hwen Thsang, the country of the Vrijis was long from east to west and narrow from north to south. The tract was lying between the Gandak and Mahanadi rivers which is about 300 miles long and 100 miles in breadth. There were several ancient cities some of which were the capitals of eight different clans of Vrijis[lxvi]. Cunningham found Navandgarh “one of the oldest and most interesting places in northern India”. (AGI, p 378). It is a ruined fort from 250 to 300 ft square on the top and 80 ft in height. It is situated close to the village of Lauriya. The ancient remains include an Asokan Pillar and the Stupas were mounds of earth. Cunningham thinks that these mounds might be sepulchral monuments of the early kings dating back to 600 to 1500 BC. Colebrooks translates Stupa as  ‘mound of earth’. Buddha complimented Wajjians, “they maintain, respect, reverence and make offerings to them (the mounds or stupas or chaityas) and that they keep up without diminution the ancient offerings, the ancient observances, and the ancient sacrifices righteously made”. Therefore, Cunningham maintains that these mounds were pre-Buddhist. (AGI, p 379).

25.  Nepala: Nepala might be about 1000 miles in circuit consisting of seven streams of river Kosi,  named Sapta Kausiki. The raja of Nepal was a Kshatriya belonging to Lichhavi race. Curiously, the kings of Tibet, and Ladak were also Lichhavis. Cunningham thinks that they might be off-shoots of Nepal royal family. The Lichhavi  conquest of Nepal was estimated by Cunningham to BC 4.

26.  Magadha: The province of Magadha was about 833 miles in circuit, bounded by the Ganges on the north, by the districts of Banaras on the west, by Hiranya Parvata or Mongiron on the east, and Kirana Suvarna or Singbhum on the south. The capital of Magadha was known as Kusumapura but it was deserted when Hwen Thsang visited. The old city was 11 2/3 miles in circuit. The new town, Pataliputa pura, was called as capital of India by the Greeks. Megasthenes gives a clear description of the city. It was 25 ¼ miles in circuit. According to Vayu Purana,  the city of Kusumapura or Pataliputra was founded by Raja Udayaswa, grandson of Ajatasatru, a well known contemporary of Buddha. Ajatasatru’s ministers were engaged in building a fort in the village Patali to check the Vrijis. Buddha predicted that it would grow into a great city. The city was completed during the reign of Udaya, the grandson of Ajatasatru about the year 450 BC. The position of the city was at the junction of Ganges and Gandak (Hiranyavati) now known as river Sona (gold). The Magadha was the scene of Buddha’s early career as a religious reformer. It possesses a greater number of holy places connected to Buddhism than any other province in India.[lxvii] Cunningham gives the details of the Buddhist sites described by Hwen Thsang. (AGI, pp 384-401). Some of these sites are also important   from Puranic point of view. Kusagarapura (The town of Kusa grass) was a city in ruins. On the hill near the city,  it is believed that sage Vyasa had formally dwelt. The ruins of that house was still existing at that time. There was a big cave which people called “the Palace of Asuras”. There is a Mount called Vipula which Cuunningham identifies with Chaityaka of Mahabharata. In the neighborhood of Gaya, in an another Buddhist site, just opposite the village Giryek, two parallel ranges of hills stretch towards the north-east of which one is lower than the other in height. The lower peak on the east is crowned with a solid tower of brickwork well known as Jarasandh-ka-baithak or Jarasandha’s throne (Mahabharat) while on the other there are ruins of Buddhist vihara.

27.  Hiranya Parvata: Cunningham fixes its limits as extending from Lakhi Sarai to Sultanganj on the Ganges in the north and from the western end of Parsanth hill to the junction and estimated its circuit as 350 miles. The capital city of the kingdom stood at Mount Hiranya (Golden Mountain). Cunningham identifies the mountain as Modagiri mentioned in Mahabharat.

28.  Champa: Champa was the old name for Bhagalpur surrounded by Ganges. Its circuit was about 667 miles bounded by the Ganges on the north and by Hiranya-Parvata or Mongir on the west.

29.  Kankjol: Kankjo might have comprised the whole of hill country to the south and west of Rajmahal with the plains lying between the hills and the Bhagirathi river as far south as Mushirabad. This tract might be 300 miles in circuit.

30.  Paundra Vardhana: The country[lxviii] bounded by the Mahanadi on the west and Tista and Brahmaputa on the east and the Ganges on the south. It was 667 miles in circuit.

31.  Jajhoti: It corresponds with the modern district of Bundelkhand. Its capital was Khajuraho. The country was 667 miles in circuit comprising all country to the south of the Jumna and Ganges, from the Betwa river on the west of the temple Vindhyavasini Devi on the east  and Bilhari near the sources of  the Narbada river on the south. Jajhoti Brahmins[lxix] were well distributed over the whole province. Khajuraho has most magnificent group of Hindu temples. A traditional story is connected with Mahoba (Mahotsavanagar), another ancient city in the region. The Chandelas sprang from Hemavati, a Brahmin girl, through Chadrama, the Moon around 800 AD. (AGI p 410).

32.  Maheswarapura: The kingdom was 500 miles in circuit extending from Dumoh and Leoni on the west to the source of Narbada on the east.

33.  Ujjain: The kingdom was 1000 miles in circuit. It was bounded by Malwa on the west. It was under the rule of Brahman Raja. The temples of gods were very numerous.

34.  Malawa: Malawa was bound by Vadari on the north, Balabhi on the west, Ujjain on the east and Maharashtra on the south. It might be 167 miles in circuit with the ancient Dhara (Dharanagari) as capital. Hwen Thsang writes that Magadha and Malawa were especially esteemed for Buddhist studies. Malawa was having hundreds of monasteries and no  less than twenty thousand monks of the school f Sammatiyas. Fifty years before his visit, Malawa was ruled by a staunch Buddhist  king, Siladitya. (AGI, p 415).

35.  Kheda: Kheda (the present Kaira) was extending from the bank of Sabarmati on the west to the great bend of the Mahi river on the north-east and to Baroda in the south. In shape a rough square.  It was 500 miles in circuit.

36.  Anandapura: The district was 333 miles in circuit and dependent on Malawa.

37.  Vadari or Eder: The size of the province was 1000 miles in circuit. Its boundaries might be Ajmer and Ranthambhore to the north, the Loni and Chambal rivers on the east and west, and the Malwa frontier on the south. Pliny described that the region was possessing “extensive mines of gold and silver”. And so “the Gulf of Khambay was the great emporium of Indian trade with the west” opines Cunningham. (AGI, p 421).

Eastern India

The Eastern India comprised Assam and Bengal proper together with the Delta of Ganges, Sambhalpur, Orissa and Ganjam. There were six kingdoms in Eastern India according to Hwen Thsang. These are, Kamarupa, Samatata, Tamralipti, Kirana Suvarna, Odra and Ganjam.

1.     Kamarupa: Kamarupa was the ancient name of Assam. The territory was 1667 miles in circuit comprising the whole valley of the Brahmaputra river or modern Assam, together with Kusa-Viahara and Butan. The Brahmaputra Valley was in turn divided into three sub regions, Sadiya, Assam proper and Kamarup.  Kamarup was the most powerful state also the nearest to the rest of India. Kusa-Vihara was the richest part of the country. Therefore, it was for sometime capital of the country, The chief city was Kamatipura. The old capital of Kamarup was Gohati on the south bank of Brahmaputra. On the east, Kamarup touched the frontiers of  “western barbarians” of the Chinese province Shu. The king in the 7^th century was Brahman, named Bhaskara Varmma who claimed descent from Vishnu. His family were ruling the country for 1000 generations, but he became a staunch Buddhist and accompanied Harsha Vardhana in his procession from Pataliputra to Kanoj.  (AGI, p421-3).

2.     Samatata: The country of Samatata is mentioned in the inscription of Samudra Gupta in which it was coupled with Nepala. It is also mentioned in the geographical list of   Varahamihira. Hwen Thsang describes it as ‘a low, moist country on the seashore’. Samatata might have been the Delta of the Ganges and was about 500 miles in circuit.

3.     Tamralipti: The kingdom of Tamralipti was about 250 miles in circuit, situated on the seashore and the surface of the country was wet and low. Tamralipti was the Sanskrit name of Tamluk which is situated on Rupnarayan river. It was small fertile land lying to the westward of the Hughli river.

4.     Kirana-Suvarna: The kingdom was 750 miles in circuit comprising all petty hill-states lying between Medinpur and Sirguja on the east and west, and between the sources of the Damuda and Vaitarani on the north and south. The province was occupied by wild tribes with a collective name of Kols. The people speak various dialects of two distinct languages belonging to two different races, Munda and Uroons. The language of Uroons is connected to Tamil where as that of Mundas to northern tribes. The name of Kirana means man of mixed race and  Suvarnas are barbarian Suvaras or Suars. In the 7^th century, the king of this country was Sasangha who is famed as a great persecutor of Buddhists. (AGI, p 430)

5.     Odra or Orissa:  The province was 1167 miles in circuit, extended to Hughli and Damuda rivers on the north and to the Godavari in the south. But the old province, Odra-desa was limited to the valley of Mahanadi and to the lower course of Suvarnriksha river. It comprised the present districts of Kuttak and Sambhalpur and a portion of Medinipur. The city of Puri is famous for the Jagannath temple. The ancient metropolis of the country was Kotah on the bank of Mahanadi river. In sixth century, Raja Jajati Kesari established a new capital called Jajatipura (the modern Jajipura). Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills have Buddhist caves. (AGI p.431-2).

6.     Ganjam: The district was about 167 miles in circuit and the territory was confined to the small valley of Risikulya river. Ganjam, the old capital, was situated near Chilka lake and ocean. The king in the seventh century might be Lalitendra Kesari who was later defeated by Harsha Vardhana. Afterwards it was annexed to Orissa. (AGI, p 432-4).

Southern India

         Southern India comprised whole of the peninsula to the south of the Tapti and Mahanadi rivers from Nasik on the west to Ganjam on the east. It was divided into nine separate kingdoms, exclusive of Ceylon which was not considered as belonging to India. They were: Kalinga, Kosala, Andhra, Dhnakataka, Jorya, Dravida, Malakuta, Konkan and Maharashtra.

1.     Kalinga : The kingdom was 833 miles in circuit. Its boundary in the south might be river Godavari, to its west Andhra and to the north Ganjam. Its original capital was Srikakulam. Mahendragiri mountan rage which retained its name from the Mahabharata times is its special feature. Rajahmundry was the capital of Vengi , the eastern branch of the Chalukyas. During the life time of the Buddha, Kalinga was famous for the manufacture of fine muslins. After the death of Buddha, the king of Kalinga obtained one of the teeth of the Buddha, over which he built a magnificent Stupa at Dantapura, says Cunningham (AGI, p 436-8).

2.     Kosala : The ancient Kosala might be the present province of Berar, or Gondwana. The kingdom of Kosala was 1000 miles in circuit and Cunningham opines that it was bounded by Ujjain on the north, by Maharashtra on the west, by Orissa on the east and by Andhra and Kalinga on the south. The position of its capital is difficult to be fixed among the major cities of the province, Chanda, Nagpur, Amaravati and Elichpur which was stated to be nearly 7 miles in circuit. (AGI, p 438-44).

3.     Andhra: The province of Andhra was in 500 miles in circuit and frontiers are not mentioned. Cunningham presumes that the Godavari river to the north and east. It is also limit of the Telugu language towards the north. To the west, it meets the kingdom of Maharashtra. The territory cannot have extended beyond the Manjira branch of the Godavari to Bhadrachalam on the south-east. Andhras are mentioned by Pliny that they possessed thirty fortified cities. The Chinese pilgrim states that language of the people of Andhra was different from that of Central India but the forms of the written characters were the most part the same. The old Nagari alphabet was still in use. Cunningham infers that the Telugu characters which are found in inscriptions of the tenth century had not been adopted in the south. (AGI, p 446).

4.     Danakakotta: Cunningham identifies the place with Dharanikota or Amaravati on the banks of Krishna river.[lxx] The province was 1000 miles in circuit. The boundaries of the province as nearly as possible with the limits of the Telugu language which extended to Kulbarga and Pennakonda on the west, and to Tripati and Pulikat lake on the south, Andhra and Kalinga on the north and on the east by the sea.

5.     Choliya or Joriya:  This is a small district of 400 miles in circuit. The country was not properly identified.

6.     Dravida: The country was 1000 miles in circuit and its capital Kanchi[lxxi] was 5 miles in circuit.

7.     Malakuta or Madura: The country was the southern end of the peninsula.  The country was 500 miles in circuit. Cunnigham infers that Madura might be the capital city of the province.

8.     Konkana : The country was 833 miles in circuit. It might be including the whole line of coast from Bombay to Mangalor and might have extended inland far beyond the line of Western Ghats.

9.     Maharashtra: The province was 1000 miles in circuit. The tract had Malwa on the north, Kosala and Andhra on the east, Konkana on the south and the sea on the west. Its capital was 5 miles in circuit. Cunningham is inclined to suggest the Paithan or Pratishthana might be its capital.

Cunningham adds a small note on Ceylon at the end of narration though it was not considered a part of India. Hwen Thsang wanted to visit Ceylon because Buddhism was popularized there during Asoka’s reign. Buddhism was State religion for some time. But he heard that there was political trouble caused by the assassination of the reigning king. So, he changed his mind and took return path through Konkan and Maharashtra and North-west, back to his country.  The ancient name of the island was Sinhala. The meaning of its original name is Ratna-dwipa. The Greeks called Taprobane. The island, according to Sir Emerson Tennet, is about 650 miles in circuit being 271 ½ miles in length from north to south and 137 ½ miles from east to west. Cunningham states that the Ceylonese were barbarians until the landing of Vijaya in 543 BC; and there is no satisfactory evidence of any Aryan connection or intercourse before the visit of Mahendra, the son of Asoka, in BC 242. (AGI p 472).

      Cunningham added three Appendices to his book : A) Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang’s Travels, B) Measures of Distance and C) Correction of Ptolemy’s Eastern Longitudes followed by very useful Index.

Some Observations:

            Alexander Cunningham was distinguished as the first Archaeological Surveyor officially appointed by the English Government in India after his retirement from military service. Later, he was designated as the Director of the Department of Archaeology. While he was in military service as Engineer he had the advantage of surveying the frontier provinces for military purposes. He lamented that many ancient sites (mounds) were dug indiscriminately for laying roads in the frontier regions for military purposes and used the mud, bricks and stones in the constructions. The north-west region where Hindu kingdoms and culture existed centuries before Christ came under barbarian tribes from central Asia in the medieval times. The towns and monasteries were destroyed beyond recognition. He found that most of the Buddhist structures –stupas, chaityas and universities, were razed to ground during the Muslim invasions. Muslim conquerors treated the Buddhism equally idolatrous with the Hinduism. They persecuted both.  He came across many such ruins of old sites during his general survey and took interest in the archaeological exploration of these regions simultaneously. He could also seek cooperation of his colleagues in the military service in locating preserving certain sites. He must be remembered for long for preserving some of the sites. He sustained his interest in history throughout even after he returned to his motherland. His contribution to numismatics is also praiseworthy. The present work is a comprehensive one in which he tried to point out various ancient towns on the modern Indian map.

The Greeks did pioneering work in mapping India according to the information they collected from different sources, while the Arabs and Chinese did visit India and travelled in this country. Greeks’ personal acquaintance of India was mostly limited to north-west. Among them, only Megasthenese visited the kingdom of Magadha but probably his movements were confined to its capital city, Pataliputra. He, it seems, was not permitted to travel freely in India, as the ‘Artha Sastra’ had stipulated many conditions on the movements of foreigners in the Mauryan Empire.[lxxii]  Arabs’ personal knowledge was also mostly limited to the West Coast and the Sindh area whereas Chinese pilgrims had toured extensively in India. Among the Chinese, Yuan Chwang (Hwen Thsang) toured entire India and recorded valuable information about our country, people, religious practices, commerce and trade.

Cunningham adopted the classical five-division scheme for his presentation on historical geography of India. What we call, today, the Indian sub-continent including Kabul, Afghanistan etc in the north-west upto Burma in the east, including Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet and Ladakh was then known as ‘one’ India. It has no comparison to the present truncated Republican State. Cunningham’s work on Northern India and Central India was quite exhaustive, but, his description of other divisions was cursory. He made the best use of the Greek notices as primary while describing north-west India  which he called Northern India and took Yuan-Chwang’s travel account as corroborative evidences to identify the ancient towns and the ancient sites in that region. The Central India possessed numerous Buddhist sites and includes the Buddhist Circuit also because the life and career of Buddha was mostly connected to this region. Here, Cunningham took the travelogue of Yuan Chwang as primary and the Greek notices as corroborative evidence for his findings. Cunningham also referred to Sanskrit and Pali sources to some extent in identifying the names of certain places. Indian place names are, of course,  difficult to spell or pronounce in a foreign tongue. Greek and Chinese languages are totally dissimilar to each other. Cunningham had great difficulty in identifying the place names from both Greek and Chinese sources. He took the Sanskrit and Pali versions to spell the names properly. But, he, being a foreigner, might have found it difficult to read the names and to interpret them. At times, he had to depend on the early literal translations of the Puranas and other Indian literature. The similarities and the origin of Indian names might have been more difficult for him to interpret and connect them with historical events.

 Yuan Chwang being a Buddhist monk was basically interested in the centers of Buddhism and the holy places connected to it. While he was reporting on the communities other than his own Faith, his prejudices against them are quite evident. He paid very high tributes to King Harsha Vardhana who was his patron and whom he called the Lord of (entire) North India. Obviously, he did not report much on the other divisions of India – Western, Eastern and Southern India—where the reigning kings were mostly Hindu. Cunningham has literally walked in the foot-steps of the Chinese pilgrim in his narration and so his work is also deficient with regard to those three divisions of India. Apart from that, he had personally travelled only in North India and Narmada River was his boundary in the south. So he had no personal knowledge about the south of Vindhyas according to himself.[lxxiii]

Though Cunningham has not taken the geographical information available in the Puranas, Itihasas, Kavyas etc, as primary for his work, he endeavoured to identify the remote antiquity of some of the places like Mulasthana (Multan) known as Kashyapapura, the capital of Kasyapa Prajapati, father of Daityas and Adityas, in the north-west and the place called Ukala Kshetra in the Central India where Vishnu incarnated in the form of a Boar to kill Hiranyaksha. This reminds us the fact, that serious studies are most welcome from our native scholars to map-up ancient India taking Indian sources as primary. Satguru Sivananda Murtyji[lxxiv] suggests that we need to write the “Geography of History”. We already have history in form of Puranas, Itihasas and Kavyas. What we need is to identify our ancient historical events in their proper geographical locations. This would enable us to authenticate our history from Puranas. The modern Historical Method insists us to put our history in the frame of two co-ordinates – the place and the time. If the place is fixed for a Puranic earthly event[lxxv], the modern techniques of Archaeology like Remote Sensing etc can be employed to explore the sub-strata of the identified site and estimate the time frame of the civilization and culture using modern scientific methods. The antiquity of Hindu civilization based on its ancient cultural values, if proven, is not only a pride of our Bharat but of the humanity at large. If efforts are continued in this direction, Cunningham’s work will serve us as a torch-bearer.

Appendix

Figure 1 Hwen Thsang's travels in North-West

Figure 2 Alexander's expedition in Sindh

     

Figure 3 Hwen Thsang's travels in Gangetic Doab

Figure 4 Hwen Thsang's travels in Bihar

Figure 5 Hwen Thsang's travels on the East Coast

Notes:

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[i] Former Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences and Professor of History (retired), Kakatiya University, Warangal. Email: ysudershanrao@gmail.com. Blog : ysudershanrao@blogspot.com, Mobile +91 9849450116.                                     The author  expresses his gratitude to Satguru Sivananda Murtyji (Bhimunipatnam) for suggesting the theme and for His gracious guidance throughout.

[ii] It is said that Vasco de Gama met with one Ibn Majid and found at him lots of maps and marine devices. The Arabs were well connected with India by sea for trade.                             (http://www.muslimstoday.info/content/story/arabs-founders-geography)

[iii] According to Strabo, Alexander “caused the whole country to be described by men well acquainted with it” –Geographia –ii. 1.6

[iv] Seafaring of Arabs is referred to in the ancient writings of Strabo and Ptolemy. But, only in the middle ages, the Arab Geographers were known to be well-versed in the knowledge of paths, roads and routes. (http://www.muslimstoday.info/content/story/arabs-founders-geography)

[v] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/146594/Sir-Alexander-Cunningham

[vi] The ASI, Government of India has recently published 23 volumes of his reports which run into some five thousand pages. These provide valuable insight into the history of India, particularly about Hindu places of worship which were either demolished completely and masjids and dargahs built there on or those converted to masjids and dargahs after removing symbols and signs of Hindu worship.

[vii] A list of his complete works along with a summary of his biographical memoir is given in the present book, (xiii-xvi).

[viii] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/146594/Sir-Alexander-Cunningham

[ix] http://www.janasangh.com/jsart.aspx?stid=79

[x] See preface to the original edition of the book under review.

[xi] ‘Etude sur la Geographie et les populations primitives du Nord-ouest de l’Inde, d’apres les Hymnes Vediques’, Paris, 1850.

[xii] Idem, XIX

[xiii] Strabo’s Geographia, ii.1.6

[xiv] Hwen Thsang’s travels extended from 629 AD to 645 AD. He visited most of the great cities throuout the country from Kabul and Kashmir to the mouths of Ganges and Indus, and from Nepal to Kanchipura near Madras. He entered Kabul from the north-west, via Bomian, about the end of May 630 AD and returned to China crossing Hindu Kush about 644 AD.

[xv] A Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, Cosmo 2007, p.3. Hereafter,  the page numbers of references from this book are shown in the text or footnotes as (AGI with relevant page numbers).

[xvi] However, Ptolemy’s description of India is completely distorted. Instead of showing the acute angle formed by the meeting of the two coasts of the Peninsula at Cape Comorin is changed to a single coastline, running  almost in a straight from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganges. (AGI, p7)

[xvii] 1 British mile is 8.70827286 stadia.

[xviii] Elphinston, History of India, intro- p.1. (AGI, p2.)

[xix] Journal of Asiatic Society, Bengal, (AGI, p.4)

[xx] Chinese sources say that India was known to them in the second century BC during the reign of Emperor Wuti of later Han dynasty. It was then called Yuan-tu or Yin-tu that is Hindu, Shintu, or Sindhu. Later it is known as Thian-tu. India was sometimes called Magadha, after the name of its best known and richest province and sometimes the “kingdom of Brahmanas” after the name of its principal inhabitants. (AGI, 9)

[xxi] It is found in the official records of Thang dynasty. But, the earliest notice of it could be found in the year 477 AD when the king of Western India sent  an ambassador to China and again only a few years later (502 and 504 AD), the  kings of Northern and Southern India followed suit according to their official records.  (AGI, 8&9).

[xxii] Ptolemy called this city Kabura or Ortospana as capital city which was supplanted by Alexandria during the Greek domination and restored by the Indo-Scythian princes. (AGI p16)

[xxiii] In Scythian, ‘ku’ means water. Historians of Alexander also noticed the River Kophes.

[xxiv] It was also known as Ajuna , may be a corrupt form of Ujjana in Pali and Udyana (garden) in  Sanskrit. M Vivien de St Martin states that Udyanapura was te old name of Nagarahara. (AGI p39)

[xxv] Strabo called it Gandharitis and  Ptolemy  Gandarae. The Chinese pilgrims called it Kien-to-lo.

[xxvi] Fa Hian called it  Fo-lu-sha or Parasha.

[xxvii] Chinese pilgrim Sung Yun says “amongst the topes of western countries this is the first”. (AGI p67)

[xxviii] They were Tangi, Shirpao, Umrazai, Turangzai, Usmanzai, Rajur, Charsada and Parang. They extend over a distance of  15 miles.

[xxix] Ujjana was the Pali form of Udyana.

[xxx] Subhavastu or Suvastu (Sanskrit) and Suastus of Arian.

[xxxi] Majjhima in Pali. Madhyantika was the name of the teacher who was sent to spread Buddhism in Kashmir and the Himavanta country after the Third Synod conducted during Ashoka’s reign.

[xxxii] The length of the province along the river Indus from east to west was about 150 miles and breadth about 80 miles  from the mountains of Deoseb to the Karakoram range.

[xxxiii] Fa-Hian called it Po-na or Bana.

[xxxiv] Hwen Thsang estimated the length of the circuit to be 1166 miles.

[xxxv] Kamraj was the northern half of the valley and Meraj the southern half.

[xxxvi] Founded by Asoka (BC 263 to 226).

[xxxvii] Rajatarangani records that Jaloka, son of Asoka, built this temple. The hill was then known as Jyeshteswara. (AGI p81).

[xxxviii] A strange story is recorded in the Muslim chronicles (Ferishta and Abul Fazl), a copper plate inscription was found in the debris of a Siva temple destroyed by Sikandar which reads that the demolition was predicted that the temple would be destroyed after the expiration of 1100 years by a person named Sikandar.

[xxxix] Fa Hian called it Chu-sha-ski-lo means ‘severed head’ based on the legend that the Buddha betowed his head in alms at this place to a tiger.  A Stupa was built  at the site of the ‘head-gift’. The hill range is named  Margala which means idiomatically, ‘cutting the neck’.

[xl] Hwen Thsang called it Ta-cho-shi-la. He visited in 630 AD and again in 643 AD. (AGI p92).

[xli] Ketaksh might be corrupted form of Swetavasa or ‘the white robes’ or Khetavasa . Cunningham says that could be the holy place for the white-robed Jain sect or Buddhists. Brahmins also claimed the place for themselves as it was the place where ‘Siva’s eyes rained when he heard the death of his wife, Sati’.

[xlii] May be modern Punch.

[xliii] AGI p.145-148

[xliv] Ptolemy’s  Kaspaire ( AGI p199)

[xlv] Hwen Thsang called it Meu-lo-san-pu-lo which M. Vivien de St Mrtin transcribed as Mulasthanipura. (AGI p197).

[xlvi] The name might mean “Middle City” to denote it as the capital city. (AGI p210)

[xlvii] A detailed account of the heroic resistance to Alexander by the Brahman cities were added by Cunningham (AGI pp225-234)

[xlviii] Hwen Thsang called it  Kiu-che-lo and  its capital, Pi-lo-mi-lo. (AGI p262).

[xlix] Hwen Thsang called it Fa-la-pi. It is called Surashtrene by Ptolemy and the author of ‘Periplus’.

[l] Karka was fifth in descent from Govinda.

[li] This Govinda might be the king of Baroda who occupied Ballabhi and reestablished the old family.

[lii] Mo-hi was identified with  Mahi or Makwa.

[liii] Hwen Thsang called it , Po-lu-kie-cho-po.

[liv] Parasu Rama is said to have split blood of the Kshatriyas in this place. (AGI, p.279). At this place , great battle took place at this place between Kauravas and Pandavas. The place is connected with many historical and puranic events some of them are detailed  here (AGI p281-283).

[lv] See Kurukshetra Mahatmya and Vishnu Purana

[lvi] May be the present Rohikhand.

[lvii] Please note wherever the  ‘present’ is used in the text, it denotes the times of Cunningham , the late 19^th century.

[lviii] North Panchala was Rohilkhand. And that of South Panchala was Kampilya. Drona defeated Drupada and kept North panchala for himself and allowed Drupada to rule South Panchala. (AGI p305).

[lix] Cunningham takes this date for the Mahabharata War.

[lx] The mound is 3250 ft in breadth at base, about 44 ft high and 2 miles in circuit.

[lxi] Haya Mukha means Horse-face. But Cunningham suggests it could also  be Ayomukha which means iron-face which could the name of one of the Danavas. (AGI, p 326).

[lxii] Bakkula was born to a mother in Kosambi when she was bathing in river Jumna. This infant was swallowed by a fish and the fixh was caught and sold to a noble family in Benaras. The child was boughtup by the family. After some time knowing about this, the original mother went to Benaras and claimed the child. The matter was then referred to the king who judged that the child was Bakula (belonging to two kulas or castes) and so he belonged to two mothers. (AGI, p 332)

[lxiii] Visakha  episode is described by Cunningham in detail. (AGI, p338-42).

[lxiv] Cunningham gives a detailed account of this  incident of  Buddha’s life. (AGI p 357-61)

[lxv] Metamorphically called, “to turn the Wheel of Dhamma (Law)”.

[lxvi] The eight clans of Vrijis: Vaisali, Kesariya, Janakpur, Navandgarh, Simrun, Darbanga, Puraniya and Motihari. (AGI, p 378).

[lxvii] The chief places are Buddha-Gaya, Kukkutapada, Rajagriha, Kusagarapura, Nalanda, Indrasilagruha and Kapatika monastery.

[lxviii] The Sanskrit name is Vardhamana. (AGI  p404)

[lxix] Jajhoti is a corrupt form of Yajur-hota who follow Yajur Veda.

[lxx] Cunnigham discusses at length to come to this understanding with regard to fixing Dhanakakkota. (AGI pp 447-459).

[lxxi] Kanchipuram or Cajeevaram in Sanskrit.

[lxxii] His report on the native government and its organization in general and the governance of capital  City in particular  differ from the  ‘Artha Sastra’

[lxxiii] A few maps showing the expedition of Alexander in Sindh and the travels of Hwen Thsang from the book are given in the appendix as ready reference

[lxxiv] Mahamahopadhyaya, Dr K Sivananda Murty  (Guruji), ‘Anandavan’, Bheemunipatnam, A.P. India, (531163)

[lxxv] Puranas speak of the events happening at earthly plane and other non-earthly planes also. But History is concerned with the life of human beings on earth.

Historical Geography of Ancient India

----Y Sudershan Rao[i]

(The ‘Hall of Time’ Digest)

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Title of the Book:      Ancient Geography of India

Name of the Author: Major General Sir Alexander Cunningham                                                                               (A. Cunningham)

Publication:              (First Published in 1871)

                                  Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 2007

                                  Pages: 501, Price: Rs 595/-

                                  ISBN: 81-307-0619-9

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Introduction:

         

            Ancient Indian literature –Vedic, Puranic, Itihasic, Jain, Buddhist, etc—is replete with valuable information regarding this planet Earth, the Solar System, and the Brahmanda. The Puranas also indicate existence of numerous similar Brahmandas beyond ours. The knowledge about this Universe is handed down to us by our great seers of yore. Besides the spiritual pursuits of the seers who ‘received’ the knowledge, common man’s geographical exploration of this planet is also clearly seen from the Itihasas, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which we may call ‘evolved’ knowledge. These Itihasas also vouchsafe that the men had the knowledge of higher worlds and that they had live-interaction with the closer worlds (lokas) – higher and  nether worlds-- like, swarga, yaksa, gandharva, kinnera, naga, patala etc.

The knowledge of these Bharateeya Itihasas was widely spread throughout the world including Americas as claimed by some archaeologists.  India had a brisk trade with as far as Italy in the West, Africa, Arabia and South-East Asia in the proto-historic period dating back to at least 5000 years from now. China and India, being close neighbors, were engaged in regular trade and commerce since centuries before Christ. Buddhist sources tell us that the Indian traders were having trade connections with far off lands braving the high seas. Indian coast was blessed with many natural sea-ports. India was well known for its ship-building industry till as late as 15^th century when Vasco de Gama reached Indian Coast, Calicut, by circumnavigating the Cape of Good Hope[ii].

India had been the most sought after country by the foreigners for its richness in knowledge, culture and wealth. Perhaps, that proved to be more a bane than a boon when we look to our past recorded history from about 3^rd century BC. Alexander’s invasion had stimulated the Greeks’ geographical exploration[iii]. The earlier trade connections facilitated the study of Indian geography by the Greeks and later the Arabs[iv]. Patrokles who was the satrap of north-east Syria collected information regarding India and the Eastern Provinces. Thales, Pythagoras, Strabo, Eratosthenes, Amyntas, Megasthenes and several others explored India.  Pliny and Ptolemy (first and second century AD) dealt the Geography of India. Periplus of Erithrean Sea by an anonymous writer of the first century AD contains the best account of commerce between Red Sea and India. Among Arabs in the middle ages, mention may be made of Ibn Hardazabah who wrote the first book of Islamic geography, Abu al-Faraj Kudamat Ibn Jafar writer of ‘Al-Haraj’, al Masudi, and several other Arabs who were interested in geographical studies.

After Company’s rule was well established in India, British officers took interest in the ancient Indian geography commenting and interpreting classical literature, both indigenous and foreign, from the latter half of 18^th century. M. D’Anville (1753-75), Rennel (1783-93), Mannert (1797), Dr Vincent who translated the Periplus, showed interest in this field. Col. Francis Wilford will be remembered for his first serious attempt to study the ancient geography of India collecting  material from Indian sources. M Viven de Saint-Martin treated in a masterly manner the Vedic, the classical and the Chinese sources of ancient geography of India and Central Asia. Among those Indologists who worked on the ancient geography of India, Sir Alexander Cunningham, deserves a special mention. His Ancient Geography of India has become a standard treatise on the subject. An attempt is made herein to give a brief review of this monumental work on Indian Geography.

About the Author:

            Sir Alexander Cunningham,  (1814- 1893), British army officer (Engineering Corps)  turned archaeologist had excavated many sites in India, including Sārnāth and Sānchi, and served as the first Director of the Indian Archaeological Survey.

At 19, he joined the Bengal Engineers and spent 28 years in the British military service in India, retiring as Major General in 1861. Early in his career he met James Prinsep, a British numismatist, who ‘ignited’ his interest in Indian history and coins. In 1837 Cunningham excavated at Sārnāth, outside Vārānasi (Banaras), one of the most sacred Buddhist shrines, and carefully prepared drawings of the sculptures. In 1850 he excavated Sānchi, site of some of the oldest surviving buildings in India. In addition to a study of the temple architecture of Kāshmir (1848) and a work on Ladākh (1854), he published The Bhilsa Topes (1854), the first serious attempt to trace Buddhist history through its architectural remains.

After his retirement in 1861 from military service, he submitted a Memorandum to Lord Canning, the Governor General of India, in which he outlined the object of the organization of Archaeological Survey of India. He wrote, "It would rebound equally to the honour of the British Government to institute a careful and systematic investigation of all existing monuments of India." [v]  Later, he agreed to become the Director of the Indian Archaeological Survey and remained with it until it was dissolved (1865). Cunningham's duties were defined, in a Resolution, “to superintend a complete search over the whole country and prepare a systematic record and description of all archaeological and other remains that are unique for their antiquity, historical interest or beauty.” Exploration and excavations were the primary functions of the Department between 1861-1885. Cunningham toured almost the entire length and breadth of North India up to Narmada river. He submitted detailed findings about a large number of monuments and historical sites.[vi]  He resumed his post when the Archaeological Survey Department was restored (1870) and during the next 15 years carried out many archaeological explorations among the ruins of northern India. He published The Ancient Geography of India (1871), the first collection of the edicts of Emperor Aśoka of 3rd-century-bc and The Stûpa of Barhut (1879). Over the years he gathered a large collection of Indian coins, the choicest of which were purchased by the British Museum. After his retirement from the survey (1885), he devoted himself to Indian numismatics and wrote two books on the subject.[vii] He was knighted in 1887.[viii]

The work done by Cunningham received a greater fillip during the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon (1899-1905). His interest in Archaeology resulted in the passing of the Ancient Monuments Preservations Act in 1904. In his address to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, he observed: "We have a duty to our forerunners, as well as to our contemporaries and to our descendants, nay, our duty to the two latter classes in itself demands the recognition of an obligation to the former, since we are the custodians for our own age of that which has been bequeathed to us by an earlier, and since posterity will rightly blame us if, owing to our neglect they fail to reap the same advantages that we have been privileged to enjoy".[ix] Cunningham was succeeded by Sir John Marshall who also did yeoman service for the promotion of archaeology in India.

About the Book:

            The book, Ancient Geography of India (AGI), covers the Buddhist period including the campaigns of Alexander and the travels of Hwen-Thsang (Yuan Chwang). The book describes the geography of – Afghanistan, Kashmir and Panjab of Northern India; Sind, Gurjara and Vallabhi (Balabhi) of Western India; Gangetic plains starting from Sthaneswara to Magadha including Malwa and Ujjain of Central India: Kamarupa to Ganjam of Eastern India; and from Kalinga to Maharashtra including Andhra, Dravida and Konkan of Sothern India. Ceylon is also included. Separate notes on (A) Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang’s Travels, (B) Measures of Distances, Yojana, Li, Krosa and (C) Correction of Error in Ptolemy’s Eastern Longitudes are appended. Further, the book contains thirteen valuable maps of ancient India showing the locations of ancient sites, villages and towns. The author dedicated this work “to Major General Sir H C Rawlison, K. C. B. who has himself done so much to throw light on the Ancient Geography of Asia”.

            Cunningham says, “I have not undertaken this work without much previous preparation”. His travels “ have been very extensive throughout the length and breadth of northern India, from Peshawar and Multan near the Indus, to Rangoon and Prome on the Irawadi, and the Kashmir and Ladakh to the mouth of the Indus and the banks of Narbada” during his long service of three decades in India. When he was employed as Archaeological Surveyor after his retirement from the military service, he studied ancient Indian geography and he was “signally successful in fixing the sites of many of the most famous cities of ancient India”. A few of the most prominent of his discoveries are : Aornos, Taxila, Sngola,Srughna,Ahichhatra, Bairat, Sakisa, Sravasti, Kosambi, Padmavati, Vaisali, and Nalanda.[x]

On the lines of the colonial periodisation of  Indian history, he periodised the geography of India as the Brahminical, the Buddhist, and the Muhammadan on the basis of ‘prevailing religious and political character of the period it embraces’. Brahminical period “would trace the gradual extension of the Aryan race over Northern India”. The Buddhist period “would embrace the rise, extension, and decline of the Buddhist faith from the era of Buddha to the conquests Mahmud of Ghazni”. The Muhammadan period “would embrace the rise and extension of Muhammadan power from the time of Mahmud of Ghazni to the battle of Plassey”. M. Vivien de Saint Martin’s valuable essay[xi] covers ancient geography as elicited from the Hymns of the Vedas. H H Wilson in his Ariana Antiqua and Lassen, in his Pentapotamia Indica, refer to the ancient geography of North-west India. M. Stanislas Julien’s translation of the Life and Travels of the Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, helps identifying most of the ancient Buddhist sites. But exact locations were not pinpointed. Similarly, Muhammadan period gives us ample material from their numerous histories of the Muhammadan States of India but no authoritative work was attempted.

Cunningham chose the Buddhist period  for his work “to determine with absolute certainty the sites of many of the most important places in India”.[xii] His ‘chief guides’ were Alexander and Hwen Thsang. Alexander “caused the whole country to be described by men well acquainted with it”.[xiii]  Patrokles who held the east satrapies of the Syrian empire under Seleukas Nikator had further improved this information. These accounts were confirmed by Megasthenes who had actually visited Pataliputra.  Giving a rapid survey of Hwen Thsang’s travels in India[xiv], Cunnigham emphatically said that the Chinese pilgrim was not surpassed by any one in his extensive travels in India. He felt, “the pilgrimages of this Chinese priest forms an epoch of as much interest and importance for the Ancient History and Geography of India, as the expedition of Alexander the Great”. He also found Ptolemy’s account (150 AD)  more valuable for constructing ancient geography of India as “it belongs to a period just midway between the date of Alexander’s campaign (330 BC) and the travels of Hwen Thsang (630 AD).

The Subject Matter:

          The close agreement of the dimensions, given by the Indian informants to the Greeks, with the actual size of the country was so accurate that Cunningham was greatly surprised that “the Indians, even at their early date in their history, had a very accurate knowledge of the form and extent of their native land.”[xv]

Form and Extent of India:

Erotosthenes and other Greek writers[xvi] described India as a rhomboid, or unequal quadrilateral, in shape, with the Indus on the west, the mountains on the north, and the sea on the south and he west. The shortest side was on the west with 13000 stadia or 1493 British miles.[xvii] The length of the country from the west to east (i.e. Indus to the mouth of Ganges) is 16000 stadia or 1838 British miles. The eastern coast from the mouth of Ganges to the Cape of Comorin was reckoned at 16000 stadia or 1838 British miles and the southern coast from Cape of Comorin to the mouth of the Indus was 19000 stadia or 2183 British miles. Megasthenes estimated the distance from southern sea to the Caucusus at 20,000 stadia or 2298 British miles while the modern count from Cape of Comorin to the Hindu Kush is about 1950 miles according to Elphinston[xviii] but when converted into road distance it counts at 2275 miles. Diodorus says, “the whole extent of India from east to west is 28000 stadia and from north to south 32000 stadia,” (AGI, p4) and altogether about 60000 stadia or 6890 British miles.

Wilford[xix] quoting from the epic Mahabharat describes India as an equilateral triangle, which was divided into four smaller equal triangles. The apex of triangle is Cape of Comorin and the base is formed by the line of the Himalaya Mountains. Cunnigham taking clue from this, tried to draw three smaller equilateral triangles within the larger triangle taking a common base of line from Dwaraka in Gujarat in the west to Ganjam on the east coast and projecting the apexes to north-west, north-east and Cape of Comorin in the south and the remaining territory Gangetic plain form the fourth triangle with Himalayan rage as its base. These four triangular divisions would form the larger equilateral triangle of India as described by the epic Mahabharat. Cunningham, however, presumes the date of composition of the epic in the first century AD. He holds that the countries immediately to the west of the Indus belonged to the Indo-Scythians may be included ‘very properly within the actual boundaries of India’.

Brihat Samhita describes India as having nine divisions (Nava-Khanda). Kern, in his preface to Brihat Samhita, states that Varahamihira’s chapter on Geography was ‘almost’ on the lines of Parasaratantra which was much earlier to Brihat Smhita. This description was followed later by the authors of the Puranas. These nine divisions are : Panchala (central), Magadha (east), Kalinga (south-east), Avanta (south), Anarta (south-west), Sindhu-Souvira (west), Harahaura (north-west), Madra (north) and Kouninda (north-east). Cunningham compares this list with the lists given in the Puranas, and finds that “all the lists are substantially the same” despite some ‘sundry repetitions and displacements of names, as well as, many various readings’. Brahmanda and Markandeya Puranas also state the districts in each of the nine divisions. Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas agree with Mahabharata in describing five divisons in detail. Perhaps Mahabharata had taken only five major divisions into consideration to describe India. The nine divisions were: Kurus and Panchalas (central), Kamarupa (Assam), Pundras, Kalingas  and Magadhis (south), Sourastras, Suras, Abhiras, Arbudas, Karushas, Malvas, Souviras, Saindhavas (west) and Hunas, Salwas, Sahalas, ramos, Ambashias and  Parasthas (north). Wilson, referring to Vishnu Purana, states that the Hindus “likened their native country to the lotus-flower, the middle being Central India, and the eight surrounding petals being the other divisions”. (AGI, p11)

          Chinese sources[xx] of seventh century AD also mention only five divisions of India called the East, West, North, South and Central, usually styled as “Five Indies”[xxi]. The same division was adopted by Hwen Thsang in the seventh century. Fah-kai-lih-to, a Chinese work, describes, “this country in shape is narrow towards the south and broad towards the north”, and adds that “the people’s faces are the same shape as the country”. (AGI, p9). Hwen Thsang estimated the circumference of the country to be 90,000 li or 15,000 miles (six li = one mile) which is too high and other  Chinese sources say it is 30,000 li or 5000 miles which is too small.

      Hwen  Thsang notices about eighty kingdoms -- small and large or sovereign and tributary – in India. In Northern India, the major kingdoms were: Kapisa with its capital at Charikar or Alexandria ad Caucasum, Kashmir with its jurisdiction over Panjab, Taxila, and Taki (Sangala) near Lahore ruling over the whole plains of Multan and Shorkot. The Western Provinces were ruled by three kings of Sindh, Balabhi and Gurjjara. In Central and Eastern India, from Sthaneswara to the mouth of Ganges, and from the Himalayan mountains to the banks of the Narbada (River Narmada) and River Mahanadi, the entire country was under the rule of Harshavardhan, the king of Kanoj. In the Southern India, the most powerful king was Pulakesin II of Chalukyan dynasty and other important kingdoms were Maharashtra and Kosala, Kalinga, Andhra, Konkan and Dhanakataka.

The Himalayan range extending from north-west to north-east down the  Indian archipelago and the sea on other three sides form fixed natural boundaries. But its extant towards north-west was changing frequently when powerful kings overstepped the limits. From the time of Alexander down to a late period, greater part of Afghanistan was considered part of India. Pliny did not consider the River Indus as India’s western boundary. Seleukus Niketor gave the region  beyond Indus to Sandrokottus (Chandragupta Maurya) and his grand son Asoka served as the viceroy there for some time. The north-western region was endowed with many Buddhist monasteries as witnessed by Hwen Thsang and the Chinese pilgrim says that the ruler of Kapisa was a Hindu. The eastern Afghanistan, including the whole of Kabul valley, ‘must have been of Indian descent, while the religion was pure Buddhism’. Mahmud of Ghazni persecuted idolaters, both Hindus and Buddhists, and they were driven out of this country, ‘with them the Indian element’. Eastern Ariana which was Hindu and Buddhist finally disappeared according to Cunningham. (AGI p14).

In the Chinese arrangement, the middle and the four primary divisions only are retained. Cunningham adopted the Chinese arrangement as he found it ‘simpler, and more easily remembered’. The five divisions of India known as “Five Indies” are:

1.     Northern India comprising of Panjab, Kashmir, Afghanistan and the states the  west of River Saraswati,

2.     Western India comprising of Sindh, western Rajputana, Kutch, Gujarat and a portion on the lower course of River Narbada,

3.     Central India comprising the Gangetic  provinces from Thaneswar to the Delta and from the Himalayas to the banks of River Narbada,

4.     Eastern India comprising of Assam, Bengal, ,Delta of the River Ganges together with Sambhalpur, Orissa and Ganjam, and

5.     Southern India comprising the whole peninsula from Nasik and the west and Ganjam in the east to the Cape of Comorin (Kanya Kumari).

Northern India

            Northern India consists of three major regions : I) Kaofu or Afghanistan, II) Kashmir and III) Taki or Panjab. The provinces of Northern India beyond the Indus where Indian language and religion were predominant till the rise of Mahmud of Ghazni.

I) Kaofu or Afghanistan

Afghanistan extended from Bamian and Kandahar on the west to the Bholan Pass on the south. This large tract was divided into ten separate states or districts of which Kapisa was the chief. The tributary states were Kabul and Ghazni in the west, Lamghan and Jalalabad in the north, Swat and Peshawar in the east and Banu and Opokien in the south. In the second century BC, the region was known as Kao-fu. Kao-fu was usually identified with Kabul[xxii]. The region would have been divided among Parthians (Kandahar), Indians (Swat, Peshawar and Banu) and Saca Scythians (Kabul, Ghazni with Lamghan and Jalalabad).

1.     Kapisene or Opian : According to Hwen Thsang, the state of Kapisene was about 666 miles in circuit entirely surrounded by mountains; snowy mountains Po-lo-si-na to the north. Po-lo-si-na corresponds to the Mount Paresh or Aparasin of the ‘Zend Avesta’. Pliny states that the ancient capital of Kapisene was C(K)apisa which was destroyed by Cyrus. Ptolemy places Kapisa two and a half degrees north of Kabura or Kabul. At the time of Hwen Thsang’s visit the capital was perhaps Opian. He says it was “distinguished by its huge artificial mounds, from which, at various times, copious antique treasures have been extracted”. (AGI p18) Pliny situates Alexandria ‘at the very foot of Caucasus’ which agrees with the position of Opian. The place was chosen by Alexander on account of its favourable site at the parting of the three roads leading to Bactria. Another town of C(K)artena (of Pliny) or Karsana (of Ptolemy) is also situated at the foot of the Caucusus. It also seems to be in the  immediate vicinity of Alexandria. Cunningham identifies the town with Begram which means ‘the city’. The decline of the city was caused by the gradual desertion of the people, consequent on the transfer of the seat of government to Ghazni after the conquest of the country by  Muhammadans. Coins of the last Hindu Rajas were found in great number succeeded by the later Muslim rulers. Cunningham infers ‘that the city began gradually to decay after the Muhammadan conquest of Kabul by Sabuktugin towards the end of the tenth century. Begram might have been finally destroyed by Chengiz Khan, ‘ a merciless barbarian’. (AGI p26). Cunningham identifies another city, Cadrusi, with the old site of Koratus six miles to the north-east of Begram where remains of old city could be found consisting of mounds covered with fragments of pottery and old coins. There are also remains of masonry works. Ptolemy recorded some other peoples and towns which cannot be traced now. Hwen Thsang says that the language was not Turki but their alphabet was that of Turks, but as the king was Indian it is reasonable to infer that the language might be Indian. (AGI p33)

2.     Kophene or Kabul: Ptolemy mentions the district of Kabul. The length of the district from the sources of the Helmand river to the Jagdalak Pass is about 150 miles and its breadth from Istalif to the sources of the Logarh river is about 70 miles. The district of Kophene, opines Cunningham, might have got its name from the river which flowed through it. Kubha river is mentioned in the Vedas.[xxiii] Ptolemy called these people Kabolita and their capital Kabura. Strabo and Pliny called it Ortospana (Othrospanum of Pliny). H H Wilson suggests that its Sanskritized name might be Urddhasthana (a high place). Chinese pilgrim refers to Vardasthana (district of Wardak tribe) while the province is identified as Hupian or Opian at some distance south of Kabul. Cunningham concludes that both names refer to the immediate neighbourhood of Kabul itself. The position of Ortospana, Cunningham identifies with its Bala Hisar (high fort). It was the old capital of the country before Macedonian conquest. Even in the 10^th century, it was believed “that a king was not properly qualified to govern until he had been inaugurated at Kabul”. (AGI p30). Alexander passed through a city on his way from Arachosia to the site of Alexandria. This town, Cunningham thinks, was Nikaia (stone city) situated near a lake which is peculiar in Northern India to Kabul and Kashmir. The lake was named Astakia after a nymph whom Bacchus had abused. The city is also said to have been called Indophon or ‘Indian Killer’ on account of the victory which Bacchus had gained over the Indians on this spot. Cunningham infers that the present popular name ‘Hindu-kush’ (Hindu killer) is attributed to Indophon. Ptolemy mentions the city of Kabura and the Kabolita  with the towns of Arguda (Argandi), Locharna (Logarh) and Bagarda  along the river Kabul. In the seventh century, the king of Kophene was a Turk, and the language of the country was different from that of the people of Ghazni. Cunnigham conjectures on the lines of Kapisene that the language of Kophene was some dialect of Turki, because the king of the district was a Turk. (AGI p33)

3.     Archosia or Ghazni:  The kindom was 1166 miles in circuit including the whole of south-western Afghanistan with the exception of Kandahar. It had two capitals called Ho-si-na (Ghazni) and Ho-sa-lo.  In the seventh century, the king of Ghazni, who was a Buddhist, was descended from a long line of ancestors. Cunningham infers that their speech ‘was most possibly Pushtu and that the people might have been Afghans’. Ghazni might have been very flourishing by 7^th century. Hwen Thsang estimates the circuit of the town at 5 miles, but the present day (Cunningham’s times) walled town is not more than one mile and a quarter with sides varying from 200 to 400 yards in length, strengthened by numerous towers. Ghazni was famous in the East as a place of strength and security; and for this reason it got its name from Gaza means ‘treasury’ in old Persian. It was known for its impregnability.

4.     Lan-po or Lamghan:  This district was about 100 miles to the east of Kapisene. Cunningham suggests that the original form of the name might be the Sanskrit Lampaka. The district was 166 miles in circuit according to Hwen Thsang with snowy mountains on the north and black hills on the other three sides. It was formerly a separate kingdom; but in the seventh century the royal family was extinct and became a dependent on Kapisene.

5.     Nagarahara or Jalalabad:  Nagarahara[xxiv] was 100 miles in length (east    to west) and 42 miles in breadth (from south to north). It has Jagdalak Pass on the west, and the Khaibar Pass on the east, Kabul river in the north and snowy maintains in the south. It was Ptolemy’s Nagara which was situated midway between Kabura and the Indus. The capital, Hilo, was only three quarters of a mile in circuit situated 2 miles to the west of Jalalabad. There was a stupa where Buddha’s skull bone was deposited. It was exhibited to those who could pay a piece of gold. Situated at 5 miles south of Jalalabad, a tiny village Hidda was well known for its large collection of Buddhist stupas. Cunningham conjectures that the name Hidda might have come from the word Haddi which means bone. (AGI p38). He states that the place containing the skull-bone of Buddha might have been called Asthipura amongst the learned and Haddipura by the common people. It is called Na-kie or Nagara by Fa Hian (5^th century) when it was an independent State. When Hwen Thsang (7^th century) visited it was under Kapisene and later successively became a part of Brahman kingdom of Kabul and the Muhammadan Empire of Ghazni.

6.     Gandhara or Parashawar: The district of Gandhara[xxv] lying along the river Kophes,  between the Choaspes and the Indus. The district was 166 miles from east to west and 133 miles from north to south. The capital which they called Pu-lu-sha-pulo or Parashapura[xxvi] could be identified with the present Peshawar which was known till the Akbar’s times as Parashawar. Fa Hian states that this city was 112 miles away from Nagarahara. Parashawar or Peshawar was considered a holy town for Buddhists. The town was known for having venerated ‘begging bowl’ of Buddha and the holy Pipal tree one and a half mile to the south-east of the city. The tree was 100ft high. The tree was planted by Kanishka and the Chinese plgrim Sung-Yun called it Pho-thi (Bodhi).There was an enormous Stupa by the side of the tree built by Kanishka. The Stupa was 400ft high and one quarter of a mile in circumference.[xxvii] It contained a large quantity of relics of Buddha. The adjoining  monastery had become celebrated amongst the Buddhists through the fame of Arya-Parswika, Manorhita and Vasubandhu , three great leaders and teachers of Buddhism. It was still a flourishing center of education till 10th century when Vira Deva of Magadha was sent to the “great Vihara of Kanishka whre the best of teachers were to be found, and which was famous for the quietism of its frequenters.” (AGI p68). The monastery was known as Gor-Kotri (a Baniya’s house) where “Jogis of the Hindus …. come from great distances to cut off their hair and shave their beards” reported Babur in his Memoirs.

The other towns of the district cited by Ptolemy and Alexander’s historians are not identified. So, Cunningham tried to follow the routes of Fa Hian and Hwen Thsang and describes the sites visited by the Chinese pilgrims. Gandhara is known from the times of Puranas and Epics. The ancient capital of Gandhara was Pushkalavati founded by Pushkara, son of Bharata and the nephew of Rama according to Vishnu Purana. During the Alexander’s times, it was a very large and populous country. Its king Astes (Hasti) died in defence of his kingdom against the Greeks after a thirty-days siege. There were “Eight Cities”[xxviii] named as Hasthanagar seated close together on the eastern bank of the lower Swat River. They might be originally portions of a large town. The fort of Histr stands on a mound above the ruins of the old town of Hashtanagar. General Court says, “All the suburbs are scattered over with vast ruins”. (AGI p43). There were remains of some early town known as Palodheri (a village of Pali situated on dheri or mound of ruins). It was 40 miles from Pushkalavati. There is a great cave of Kashmiri Ghar in the hill to the north-east. In the cave of hill  Dantaloka,  prince Sudana and his wife took refuge. U-to-kia-han-cha (Udakhanda of Julien), also known as Hund or Ohind is situated on the north bank of the river Indus, about 15 miles above Attok. Cunningham suggests that the original name of the town, Utakhanda or Ut-khand was softened to Uhand or Bhithanda and then shortened to Uhand  or Ohind, which he believes was the capital of the Brahman kings of Kabul whose dynasty was extinguished by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026 AD. He says that constant encroachments of Indus river might have swept away major portion of the town.  So-lo-tu-lo or Salatura or Lahor is 4 miles to  Ohind, the birth place great grammarian, Panini. Cunningham also tried to identify the towns like Aoronos with Varanasi belonging to Raja Vara, adjacent to this there was Rani-gat above Nogram (or Queen’s rock) where Raja Vara’s Rani used to sit daily on this high seat. He further identifies Bazaria, Aoros and Embolima (Greek names) to Bazar, Rani-gat and Ohind. Bazar was a large village situated on the banks of Kalpan or Kali-pani, a place of consequence for its trade and commerce. (AGI p56). This district is known for ‘several renowned places of ancient India; some celebrated in the stirring history of Alexander’s exploits, and others famous in the miraculous legends of Buddha, and in the subsequent history of Buddhism under the Indo-scythian prince Kanishka,’ says Cunningham. (AGI p41). The town Pushkalavati was famous for a large Stupa which was erected on the spot where Buddha was said to have made an ‘offering of his eyes’. (AGI p44).

7.     Udyana or Swat:  U-chang-na or Udyana[xxix] is situated on the river Su-po-fa-su-tu[xxx] presently known as Swat or Suat. The country was described as highly irrigated and very fertile. Swat was second only to the far-famed valley of Kashmir. Hwen Thsang estimates that it was 833 miles in circuit covering all the tributaries of River Swat. The legend of ‘the hawk and the pigeon’ in which Buddha, to save a pigeon tears his own flesh and offers to hawk, is connected to this region. Fa-Hian says that Buddha was then a king named Shi-pi-ka or Sivika. The capital of Udyana was called Mung-kie-li or Mangala. There was a celebrated wooden statue of future Buddha, Maitreya, which was erected after 300 years of the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha. It was 100 ft high according Hwen Thsang,erected by Madhyantika[xxxi] school. (AGI p70)

8.     Bolor or Balti:  This district was 666 miles in circuit and its greatest length being from east to west.[xxxii] The district was surrounded by snowy mountains and produced large quantity of gold. Balti still is famous for gold washings.

9.     Falana or Banu : Its original name was Varana or Barna.[xxxiii] It was 666 miles in circuit and placed to the south-east of Ghazni. The district was chiefly composed of mountains and forests. The language of the people resembled that of Central India.

10.  Opokien or Afghansitan: Opokien lies between Falana and Ghazni. Cunningham was inclined to identify Opokien or Avakan with Afghan.

II Kingdom of Kashmir

In the seventh century, the kingdom was comprising of Kashmir valley and also the whole of hilly country between the Indus and the Chenab to the foot of the Salt range in the south. Its extended circuit was no less than 900 miles[xxxiv]. There were six sub-regions under this kingdom which were either directly ruled from Kashmir or ruled by small chieftains owing allegiance to the king of Kashmir. They were 1) Kashmir proper, 2) Urasa, 3) Taxila, 4) Sinhgapura, 5) Punacha and 6) Rajapura.

1)    Kashmir: Kashmir proper is surrounded by lofty mountains which is 300 miles in circuit. From the earliest times Kashmir was divided into two large districts of Kamraj  and Meraj.[xxxv] Hwen Thsang sais that the king was Brahmanical while the queen patronized Buddhism. Queen Anangalekha built a Vihara after her name, Anangabhavana, while the king built a temple to Vishnu, called after himself, Durlabha-swamina. The people of Kashmir were good looking but the pilgrim commented on their character negatively. The principal ancient cities of Kashmir were: Srinagari[xxxvi] (the old capital), Pravarasenapura (new capital), Khagendrapura and and Khunamusha, built before the time of Asoka, Vijipura  and Pantasok (Asoka’s times), Surapura , restoration of ancient Kambuva, Kanishkapura, Hushkapura, and Jushkapura named after the three Indo-Scythian Princes by whom they were founded, Parihasapura, built by Lalitaditya, Padmapura, named after Padma, the minister of Raja Vrihaspati, and Avantipura , named after Raja Avanti Varmama. The oldest temple in Kashmir, Jyeshta Rudra, was found on the top of the Takht-i-Suliman.[xxxvii] Srinagari also had two Asokeswara temples ! Towards the end of 5^th century, Pravarasena II built the new capital, Pravarasenapura, and he also built a temple for God Siva after his name, Pravareswara. There were many Siva temples in the valley. The Muhammadans destroyed them.[xxxviii]

2)    Urasa: The district of U-la-shi or Urasa was a mountainous district in the vicinity of the valley. The district was 333 miles in circuit. The principal towns of the district were Mansera, in the north-east; Noshahra, in the middle, and Kishangarh or Haripur.

3)    Taxila or Takshasila: The district of Taxila[xxxix] was 333 miles in circuit. It was bounded by the Indus on the west, by the district of Urasa on the north, the Jhelam river on the east and Sinhapura on the south. Hwen Thsang[xl] visited twice this city. He describes the city that it was one and a half mile in circuit. Cunningham identifies the site of the ancient city with the ruins near Shah-dheri. The ruins of ancient habitats covering over an area of six square miles, now known as Bir, Hatial, Sir-Kap-ka-kot, Kacha-kot, Babar khana and Sir-Suk-ka-kot might be included in ancient city of Taxila. Manikyala had a great Stupa where Buddha offered his body to a starving tiger. The Stupa was built by Raja Man on whose name the Stupa was erected and a city, Maniknagar or Manikur came up.

4)    Singhapura or Ketas: The district was 600 miles in circuit. On the west it was bounded by the Indus, on the north by the southern frontier of Taxila, and on the south by the Jhelam and on the north Taki. The capital of Singhapura was identified with the ruined fort  of Kotera or the area around holy tanks of Ketaksh or Khetas[xli]. The circuit of the town was less than three quarters of a mile. The holy place was claimed by the Jains, Buddhists and Brahmins.

5)    Punacha or Punach The district of Punacha or Punach[xlii] was 333 miles in circuit. It is bounded by Jhelum on the west, Pir Panchal range on the north, Rajaori on other sides. It formed part of the kingdom of Kashmir on several occasions.

6)    Rajapura or Rajaori :  The circuit of the district was about 667 miles. The petty principalities were mostly dependent on Kashmir. Rajapuri is frequently heard from the medieval period. (AGI p109).

Cunningham adds ‘a brief outline of the petty states now shown under Panjab. They were twenty–two Muhammadan and twenty-two Hindu states. These states were under the control of three major kingdoms of the region, Kashmir, Dogra and Trigartta. Most of the Hindu rulers claim their origin to Surya Vamsa or Soma Vamsa and owe their allegiance to Rajputs or kings of Kashmir. As the Muhammadans advanced, these rajas left the plains and settled in the hills. Jalandhara, genrally known as Kangra, was about 167 miles from east to west and 133 miles from north to south. According to Padma Purana, Jalandhara was a powerful daitya king who became invincible through his penance. He was overwhelmed by Siva and crushed to death under the heap of mountains. The royal family of Jalandhara and Kangra was one of the oldest in India. The other chief kingdoms were Champa, Kullu, Mandi and Sukhet, Nurpur or Pathania and Satadru. (AGIp100).

III Taki or Panjab:

 The kingdom of Tse-kia, in the seventh century embraced the whole of the plains of Panjab from the Indus to the Biks and from the foot of the mountains to the junction of the five rivers below Multan. Takin might be intended for the hills of Panjab. Taki or Panjab was divided into  Taki, Bukhephala, Shorkot and Multan. The province of Taki comprised the plains of the Panjab, Multan in the place of Doab and Multan in the lower portions.

1.     Taki, or Northern Panjab: Taki contained ‘several of the most celebrated places –some connected to Alexander’s invasion, some famous in Buddhist history and others were known for the widely traditions of the people. Jobnathnagar or Bhira, the city of Raja Jobnath or Chobnath which was described by the Greek historians, was identified with Porus by Cunningham.

2.     Bukephala or Dilwar: It was the site of the defeat of Porus which was contested by many. Bukhephala was also one along with Jhelam, Nikoie or Mong and Jalalpur. Cunningham presents a long discussion on the identification of the historic meet between Porus and Alexander. He gives Arrian’s account of the battle.[xliii] Cunningham says that the city of Bukhephala was where Alexander had crossed the river. Mong might be the city which Alexander built at the site of his victory. Sakala and Sagala were also very famous sites in respect of Puranic and Buddhist accounts.  In the beginning of Christian era, Sagala was the capital of Raja Milinda very famous among the Buddhists. Sakala was subject to Mihirkul who lost his kingdom to Baladitya, the king of Magadha. The region could boast of several ruins of cities and monasteries at Ran-si, Nara-Sinha, Asarur, Ambakapani or Amakatis etc. At Asarur, ruins of an extensive mound 3 miles in circuit with 59 ft high was found which includes royal palaces. The city of Lahor or Lohawar was the capital of Panjab for nearly 900 years. Lo, Lava, son of Rama, is said to have constructed the city. Another city Kusawar or Kasur was founded by Rama’s another son, Kusa.

3.     Shorkot: The province was 531 miles in circuit. There are several important towns and many ruined mounds, the remains of many cities. Shorkot and Kot Kamalia in Rchna Doab, Harapa, Akbar and Satgarha in Bari Doab and Depalpur and Ajudhan in Doab Jalandhar Pith are included. The foundation of Shorkot was attributed to a fabulous Raja Shor about whom nothing is known. Kot Kamalia was a small ancient town. Kota Kamalia and Harapa were among those cities which fell to Greek army. Most of these towns were destroyed in Muhammadan invasions.

4.     Multan: It is the southern province of Panjab. There were 17 paraganas during Akbar’s reign. In Multan division old sites are numerous. To name a few, Tulamba, Atari and Mutan in Bari Doab, Kahror at Jalandhar Pith, and Uchh at Junction, Ruins at Tulamba indicate that it might have been a strong fortress in ancient times. The old town was plundered and burnt by Timur. Atari had a great citadel which fell to Alexander. Alexander went completely round the citadel in a boat. The ditch was so wide and deep. Multan was a walled city. The citadel was an irregular semi-circle. Multan was known by several names which all connect to either to Vishnu or Sun. It was known as Kasyapapura[xliv] founded by Kasyapa father of Daitya and Adityas. He was succeeded by Hiranyakasyapa. It was also known as Prahladapura named after his son Prahlada. The kingdom of Multan was occupied by Lord Krishna and his son, Samba was mae its ruler. So it was known as Sambapura. Several traditions are connected to this place. There was a temple with golden statue of Sun which was famous throughout the country and offerings were pouring into temple, reports Hwen Thsang. It was known as Golden Temple. Multan might have derived from the word Mulasthana[xlv] . A detailed account of the siege of Multan by Alexander is added by Cunningham. (AGI p 199-203. The heroic resistance by the Indians was appreciated by the Greek chronicles. Alexander was wounded in this battle. Another town Uchh (Sanskrit Uccha meaning ‘High’) was on at a height from the plains. It is “distinguished by the ruins of the former towns, which are very extensive, and attest the pristine prosperity of the locality” says Masson. (AGI p204).

Western India

In the seventh century, Western India had three major divisions –I) Sindh, II) Gurjjara and III) Balabhi.

I) Sindh:

Sindh comprised the whole valley of the Indus from the Panjab to the sea including the delta and the island of Kachh. The region is divided into four principalities, as 1) Upper Sindh, 2) Middle Sindh, 3) Lower Sindh and 4) Kuchh. After the Alexander’s invasion, this was under the rule  of Ayand, son of Kajand. At that time these three principalities were known as Zor, Askalanduza, Samid and Lohana. During the times of Hwen Thsang, these four districts formed parts of one kingdom under the Raja of Upper Sindh.

1.     Upper Sindh: Generally known as Siro (Head or Upper) is 1167 miles in circuit. Its capital was named, Pi-chen-po-pu-lo (Vichavapura or Vichalapura).[xlvi] In upper Sindh, only places of ancient note are Alor, Ravi-Bhakar and Mahoria, near Larkahana. In the Alexander’s campaign, Massana, the Sogdi, the Musikani, and the Prasti  are known.

2.     Middle Sindh: It was generally known as Vichalo (Midland). Its circumference was 417 miles. The chief city, O-fan-cha, has ruins of an ancient city called Bambhra-ka-Tul or Ruined Tower. According to tradition, it was the site of once famous city of Brahmanavas or Brahmanabad. At present, the principal places in this division of Sindh are Sehwin, Hala, Haidarabad and Umarkot. But under Hindu rule, the great cities were Sadusan, Brahmana or Brahmanwas and Nirunkot. Nirunkot was most probably Haidarabad and the ancient Pattala. The places mentioned in the time of Alexander were Sindomana, and a city of Brahmans named Harmatelya. Alexander on his return march appointed Raja Sambus of Brahmanabad who submitted to him, as his Satrap for the hilly region. But his people, Brahmans, revolted and shut themselves in the fort. But Greeks,by stratagem induced them to come out and in the conflict ensued they were to death. It was the last city of Brahmins who opposed Alexander.[xlvii] Alexander during his stay at Delta, caused many new cities to come up.

3.     Lower Sindh: The district was 500 miles in circuit. Hwen Thsang mentions only one city namely Pitasila or Patala. The historians of Mohammad Bin Kasim add Debal and Nirankot. The king of Patala though submitted to Alexander, rebelled after Alexander left the place. Alexander had to come back to subdue him. Such troubles vexed Alexander on his way back.  A little town of Jarak has ruins of great temples, and Stupas. Debal was a celebrated sea-port.  Debal means simply a temple.

4.     Kuchh: The district was 267 miles in circuit. Its capital was Alor 

Cunningham gives particulars of other districts to the west of the Indus connected to Alexander, such as Arabil or Arabitae, Oritae etc. (AGI, 256-262)

II Gurjjara :

            The second kingdom in western India, Gurjjara[xlviii], was about 300 miles to the north of Balabhi and 467 miles to the north-west of Ujjain. The capital was Balmer. The kingdom was 833 miles in circuit. Its boundaries were extending about 130 miles on the north from Balar or Sirdarkot to Junjhnu, 250 miles on the east from Junjhnu to near Mount Abu, 17 miles on the south from Abu to near Umakot and 310 miles from Umakot to Balar. The region forming part of Rajaputana and Panjab was well known for its silver mines which attracted enemies from outside, the Arabs, Ghazni and Ghor rulers besides compatriots. So they used to maintain strong cavalry always. The inscriptions tell us that it was under the rule of Gurjjara kings from about 4^thcentury AD. Most of these inscriptions connect them to mid 5^th century. Their earliest inscription states a record of grant to Brahmins dwelling in the town of “Jambasura” (AGI, p.266). The Gurjjars had pushed their conquests as far south as the banks of the river Narbada in 458 AD. The Gurjjara  king Sri Datta Kusali made several grants of land to certain Brahmins in the district of Akrureswara near Jambusara which Cunningham identifies with Aklesar on the south bank of Narbada. (AGI p271). He further says that the natives did not call the province Gujarat at his times but they called it either Surat or Kathiwar.

III Valabhadra or Balabhi

            In the seventh century, the kingdom of Balabhi was 1000 miles in circuit. The ruins of famous city of Balabhi[xlix] were discovered by Tod near Bhaonagar on the eastern side of the Peninsula of Gujarat. An inscription of 5^th century describes “the beautiful kingdom of Valabhadra” but it is generally known as Balabhi.  (AGI, p266-67). But the inscription of 812 AD of Raja of Karka[l] refers to the ancestor of the king, Govinda[li], as “ornament of Sourashtra” kingdom. Again Karka’s father Lateswara himself identifies his kingdom with Balabhi. Cunningham concludes that the old name of Saurashtra was lost in 319 AD when the successors of Saka kings were supplanted by Vallabhas and the capital changed from Junagarh to Valabhi. (AGI, p267). The Ballabhis who were expelled by Govinda founded a new kingdom in Chitore. The second in succession, Guhila or Guhaditya, gave his name to his tribe, Guhilawat or Guhilat. About the same time, a chief of Chaura tribe, named Bana Raja or the ‘Jangal lord’ founded a city on the banks of Saraswati called Analwara Pattan. About 720 AD, Krishna, the Pahlava king, built the fort of Elapura “the beauty of which according to the inscription, astonished the immortals”. (AGI, p 268).  He also constructed a Siva temple in this new city which was usually called Pattan Somnath. Cunningham was inclined to identify this Elapura with Somnath. We come to know much about this temple which was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni. Ferishta describes the city of Somnath as situated “on a narrow peninsula, washed on three sides by the sea.” (AGI p 269). After destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni, city of Somath lost its importance and Analwar became capital city when Mahmud of Ghor invaded this country. Balabhi was a large kingdom including the whole of peninsula of Surashtra and the districts of Surat and Bharoch.

1.     Surashtra :  Su-la-cha or Suratha was dependent on Balabhi. Its capital, Junagarh, was situated at the foot of Mount Ujjanta (Girnar Hill). The province was small, but very rich, and had the ocean to the south. Surath was 667 miles in circuit and touched the river Mo-hi [lii]on the west. In spite of the fame of Balabhi, the old name of Surath was still applied to the whole peninsula so late as 640 AD. (AGI p 274).

2.     Bharoch  or Baryagaza : The district Barukachwa[liii] was 400-417 miles in circuit. Its chief city, Bharoch  (Bhrugu-Kachha or Bharu-Kachha) was on the bank of Narbada river  and close to sea.

Central India

            According to Hwen Thsang, the Central India extended from the Satlej to the head of the Gangetic Delta and from the Himalayan Mountains to the Narbada and Mahanadi rivers. It comprised “of all the richest and most populous districts of India, with an exception of the Gangetic Delta or Bengal Proper” says Cunningham. (AGI, p 276). ‘Of the seventy separate states of India in the seventh century, no less than thirty-seven, or rather than one-half belonged to Central India’. Cunningham chose to ‘follow the footsteps of Hwen Thsang’ who visited all these states in Central India for his description. According to Hwen Thsang the entire Central India was under the suzerainty of Harsha Vardhana of Pushyabhuti dynasty.

1.     Sthaneswara : Sthaneswara was the capital of a separate kingdom which was a tributary of Harsha. The province was 1167 miles in circuit extending from the Satlej to the Ganges. The town of Sthaneswar ( Thaneswar) consists of an old ruined fort, about 12000 sq ft. at top, with the modern town on a mound to the east. According to tradition, the town was built by Raja Dilip, a discendent of Kuru. The name Sthaneswar is said to be derived from the Sthana,(Mahadeva). Sthanu and Iswara, both, are His names. All the country between the Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers is known as Kuru-kshetra, the land of Kuru who is said to have become an ascetic on the bank of the lake known as Brahma-Sar, Rama-hrad[liv], Vayu, or Vayava-Sar and Pavan-Sar. The old town of Prithudaka was situated on the banks of Saraswati, 14 miles to the west of Thaneswar which is connected to the famous Prithu Chakravarti who was the first person to get the title of Raja.[lv] Five miles to the south of Thanewar, there is a large and lofty mound called Amin which is said to be the place where Chakravyuha was arranged in which Abhimanyu  son of Arjuna was murdered by Kauravas. There is also a Surya-kund with a temple to Aditi.

2.     Bairat: In the seventh century, the country was 500 miles in circuit.   Bairat included the greater part of present Jaipur. The city of Paryatra or Bairat is also pronounced as Virat , the capital of Matsya . The capital was two and a half miles in circuit. The Pandavas took refuge when they were in exile. The residence of Bhim is shown on the top of a long low rocky hill about one mile to the north of the town. This country has long been famous for its copper mines. The city was plundered and ruined by Mahmud of Ghazni.

3.     Srughna: Kingdom Srughna was 1000 miles in circuit. Now known as Sughan and Sugh, the village of  Sugh “occupies one of the most remarkable positions that I met with during the whole course of my researches” says Cunningham. (AGI, p 291). In shape it is almost a triangular, with a large projecting fort or citadel at each of the angles and surrounded on three sides by the bed of the old Jamuna river.

4.     Madawar:  The kingdom of Madawar (Madipura)[lvi] was 1000 miles in circuit. The king of Madawar was a Sudra who worshippd Devas and cared nothing for Buddhism according to Hwen Thsang. The capital, Madipura , was in Western Rohikhand. On the north-western frontier, a town called  Mayura was situated where there was a great temple called “the gate of the Ganges” known as Ganga-dwara, old name of Haridwara. Cunningham discussed the dispute about the place which was known both ways as  Haradwara and Haridwara. (AGI pp295-299).

5.     Bramhaputra :  The kingdom of  Brahmaputra was 667 miles in circuit including the whole of the hill-country between the Alakananda and Karnali rivers which is now known as British Garhwal and Kumaon districts.

6.     Govisana or Kashipur:  The district of Govisana was 333 miles in circuit including the present [lvii] districts of  Kashipur, Rampur and Pillibhit. Cunningham infers that the old fort near the village Ujain  represents the ancient city of Govisana. The fort had a peculiar form. It may be compared to the body of a guitar, 3000 ft in length and 1500 ft in breadth and the circuit was less than two and a half miles.

7.     Ahichhatra:  The district Ahichhatra was about 500 miles in circuit comprising eastern half of Rohilkhand[lviii]. The city Ahicchatra was just 3 miles in circuit. Its antiquity goes back to BC 1430[lix] when it was the capital of northern Panchala. The local legend of Adi Raja and Naga who formed a canopy over his head when asleep is connected to the founding of this kingdom. Drona of Mahabharata found him sleeping under the guardianship of serpent predicted that he would become a king in future.  The fort is called Adikot.

8.     Piloshana:  Piloshana was about 250 miles in circuit extending from Bulandshahar to Firuzabad and the Jumna and Kadirganj on the Ganges. Cunningham was “led to believe that Soron  was the only place in this vicinity of great antiquity.” (AGI p307). The place was originally called Ukala Kshetra. Here the demon Hiranyaksha was killed by Vishnu in the form of a Boar . Later its name changed to Sukara (‘the place of good deed’). The ancient town is represented by a ruined mound called the Kilah or fort.[lx] The original settlement of the place is very much older and attributed to the fabulous Raja Vena Chakravarti who plays a conspicuous part in all the legends of North Bihar, Oudh and Rohilkhand.

9.     Sankisa :  Sankisa might be 220 miles in circuit with Ganges and Jamuna on the north and south. Sankisa town was about 3 miles in circuit. It was one of the most famous places of Buddhist pilgrimages. The Buddhist legend says that Buddha descended at this place through a gold staircase accompanied by Indra and Brahma from the Trayastrinsa heaven after preaching the Law of Buddha to his mother Maya. There was a monastery here.  Sankisa was deserted from 1800 to 1900 years ago and the site was given to a body of Brahmins in about 560 years ago. Hwen Thsang said that many tens of thousands of Brahmins dwelt around the mound. The village was wholly populated by Brahmins as reported by him. (AGI p 14).

10.  Mathura:  Mathura was the capital of a large kingdom which was about 833 miles in circuit. It includes the present district of Mathura with the small states of Bharatpur, Khiraoli and Dholpur and the northern half of the Gwalior.  The holy city of Mathura is connected with the history of Krishna. Vrindavana (grove of basil trees) is situated at 6 miles from Mathura. It is famed as the place of Krishna’s sports with the milkmaids.

11.  Kanoj: Kanoj including all the country between Kairabad and Tanda on the Ghagra and  Etawa and Allahabad on the Jumna might be 600 miles in circuit. The great city of Kanoj was the Hindu capital of the most part of northern India for many hundreds of years. It was the capital of Harsha Vardhana in seventh century. The ancient city of 7^th century had a length of 3 miles with 1 mile breadth. Within these limits are found all the ruins that still exist to point out the position of the once famous city of Kanoj. (AGI p322)

12.  Ayuto : Ayuto was a small tract lying between Kakupur and Cawnpur and it was 83 miles in circuit. Kakupura, the capital, was once a large city with a Raja of its own. The ruined mound indicate a fort named Chhatrapur, found by Raja Chhatra Pal Chandel some 900 years ago. There were two famous temples dedicated to Kshireswara Mahadeva   and Aswathama , son of Drona of Mahabharata. (AGI p3 25).

13.  Hayamukha : Cunningham says Haya Mukha[lxi] might have comprised the whole of the present Baiswara which lies  between Sai and the Ganges rivers from Cawnpore to Manikpur and Solon. The principality was about 417 miles in circuit. Cunningham identifies the town, Hayamukha, with Daundia-khera, which 3 miles in circuit.

14.  Prayaga: Cunningham says that Prayaga might have been a small tract in the fork of the Doab, immediately above the junction of the Ganges and Jumna. It might be 83 miles in circuit. The city of Prayag (now known as Allahabad) was existing during the Asokan times. It got its name from the “tree of prag” which was placed in the centre of the city. It is a great pilgrimage centre for the Hindus.

15.  Kosambi: The district of Kosambi might be 100 miles in circuit. It is said that  present Kosambi stands on the actual site of ancient Kosambi which was also mentioned in Ramayana. Kosam was the actual site of the once famous Kosambi. The present ruins of Kosambi consist of immense fortress formed of earthen ramparts and bastions with a circuit of 4 miles and 3 furlongs. A legend of infant, Bakkula, is connected to this place.[lxii]           

16.  Kusapura : Cunningham identifies Kusapura with the present Sultanpur which was one and a half mile in circuit. Kusapura is named after Rama’s son Kusa. The site was in a strategic place being surrounded by Gomati river on three sides. Eighteen miles from Kusapur, there is a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage called Dhopapapura. (AGI, p 338).

17.  Visakha, Saketa or Ajudhya : The district might be 67 miles in circuit comprising of small tract lying around Ajudhya, between the Ghagra and Gomati rivers. Visakha city might be two and a half miles in circuit. Cunningham identifies that all these names, Visakha, Saketa and Ajudhya denote the same site, the capital of Sri Rama. Visakha,[lxiii] the most celebrated of all females in Buddhist history was a resident of Saketa before her marriage with Purna Vardhana, son of Mrigara, the rich merchant of Sravasti. Her father, also a rich merchant called Dhana Deva migrated from Rajagriha to Saketa. Visakha erected a Purvarama at Sravasti where Buddha stayed for 16 years and 9 years in Jetavana according to Ceylonese account.

18.  Sravasti : In the seventh century, the kingdom of Sravasti might be comprising all the country lying between Himalayas and the Ghagra river, from the Karnali river on the west to the mountain of Dhaolagiri and Faizabad on the east, 600 miles in circuit. The city Sravasti is said to have been built by Raja Sravasta, the son of Yuvanaswa of solar race long before Rama. Cunningham says, “Its foundation, therefore, reaches to the fabulous ages of Indian history. Purana assigns the city to Lava after Rama. Again it gains importance during the times of Buddha when it was the capital of King Prasenajit, the king of Maha Kosala. He took to Buddhism. But his son, Virudhaka hated the race of Sakyas and his invasion of their country and subsequent massacre of 500 maidens who had been selected for his harem brought forth a prediction of Buddha that within seven days the king would be consumed by fire. The prediction came true. Sravasti during Hwen Thsang’s times, was under the rule of King Vikramaditya who became a persecutor of Buddhists. Buddhist scholar, Manorhita was worsted by Brahmins in arguments and he was put to death. But his son, Vasubandhu, a great Buddhist scholar, defeated Brahmin scholars during the reign of the successor to Vikramaditya. (AGI, p 347).

19.  Kapila: Kapila was 667 miles in circuit stretching over a tract lying between the Ghagra and Gandak from Faizabad to the confluence of those rivers. The capital city, Kapila, is the birth place of Gotama. According to Buddhist chronicles, Kapilavastu or Kapilanagara was founded by some descendents of the solar hero Gotama on the bank of a lake near the river Rohini in Kosala. Kapila might also refer to sage Kapila whose hermitage was also on the bank of the lake opposite city. The river Rohini was flowing between the cities of Kapila and Koli which was the birth place of Maya Devi. It was also called Vyaghrapura. About 33 miles from Kapila, the Chinese travelers found a city called Ramagrama. This site is connected with the division of Buddha’s relics into eight parts and the entire casket was washed away by the river and reached ocean where nagas have retrieved it and presented to their king who built a stupa. (AGI, p 355-6). The river Anoma was famous in the history of Buddhism as the scene of Prince Siddhartha’s assumption of the dress of an ascetic, where he cut off his hair.[lxiv]  At Pippalavana, a stupa was erected over the charcoal ashes of the funeral pile of Buddha. The Moriyas of the city, having applied too late for a share in the relics of the body were obliged to be content with the ashes. (AGI, p 362).

20.  Kusinagara: Kusinagara, the capital city, was about 2 miles in circuit and it was in ruins when Hen Thsang visited in 7^th century. The place was also deserted. The spot where Buddha attained Nirvana, Cunningham believes, might have been the site where the present stupa stands and ruins now called Matha-kuar-ka –kot or the “fort of the Dead Prince” might be the place where his body was burnt. The Buddhists believe that Buddha attained Nirvana on the full-moon day of Visakha in 543 BC. Hwen Thsang left for Banaras from this place. On the way, he halted at a large town where a Brahman devoted to Buddhism offered him hospitality. The town is not identified. It might be Khukhundo  or Kahaon near Rudrapur. All this region was dominated by Brahmin presence. According to Ceylonese chronicles, Buddha stopped at Pawa before he reached Kusinagara. Between Pawa and Kusinagara, Buddha bathed in a stream called Kukuttha. This stream could be identified as the present Barhi or Barhi Nala. Pawa was given a share of Buddha’s relics along with other seven major cities. (AGI, p366).

21.  Varanasi or Banaras :  The kingdom of Varanasi was 667 miles and the capital city was 3 miles in circuit on the left bank of Ganges between the Barna or Varana on the north-east and Asi Nala on the south-west. Barna is a considerable rivulet but Asi is mere a brook.The joint name Varanasi may have communicated its name to the city. The points of junction of both streams with the Ganges are considered particularly holy, and accordingly temples are erected at both Sangam places. The earliest name of Varanasi was Kasi which is still in common use and also popular as Kasi-Banaras. Kasi-raja was one of the early progenitors of Lunar race. Banaras is also a celebrated city for Buddhists for their Teacher gave his ‘First Sermon’ here, [lxv]at a place called Saranath.

22.  Gajapatipura: About 50 miles to the east of Banaras, the present Ghazipura (Garjpur) might be the Gajapatipura, the capital of a district about 333 miles in circuit lying between the Ghagra on the north and the Gomati on the south, from Tanda on the west to the confluence of the Ganges and Ghagra. In Gajapatipura, there existed a monastery called Avidhakarna (“pierced ears”). Still a small village one mile away from the monastery is called Avidhakarna-pura. The confluence of Ganges and Ghogra was considered holy by the Brahmans and numerous temples were erected. One such temple was that of Narayana or Vishnu. To the east of the temple, was a monastery which is considered as the spot where Buddha had overcome and converted certain evil Demons. (AGI, p 371).

23.  Vaishali: The kingdom of Vaisali, Cunningham says, along with the neighboring kingdom of Vriji might be about 800 miles in circuit. Both of the states are placed between the mountains and the Ganges. Raja Visala was the founder of Vaisali . The fort in ruins could be found in a village called Besarah. The royal palace was about 3500 to 4400 feet in circuit. The people of Vaisali were called Lichhavis. Lichhavi, Vaideha and Tirabhukti are synonymous. Vaideha is well known since Ramayaa times as a common name to  Mithila. Tirabhukti is the present Tirahut. The modern town of Janakpur in the Mithari district is considered the capital of Mithila. Vrijis were a large tribe divided into several branches, namely Lichhavi of Vaisali, the Vaidhis of Mithila, the Tirabhuktis of Tirhut, etc.,.

24.  Vriji: According to Hwen Thsang, the country of the Vrijis was long from east to west and narrow from north to south. The tract was lying between the Gandak and Mahanadi rivers which is about 300 miles long and 100 miles in breadth. There were several ancient cities some of which were the capitals of eight different clans of Vrijis[lxvi]. Cunningham found Navandgarh “one of the oldest and most interesting places in northern India”. (AGI, p 378). It is a ruined fort from 250 to 300 ft square on the top and 80 ft in height. It is situated close to the village of Lauriya. The ancient remains include an Asokan Pillar and the Stupas were mounds of earth. Cunningham thinks that these mounds might be sepulchral monuments of the early kings dating back to 600 to 1500 BC. Colebrooks translates Stupa as  ‘mound of earth’. Buddha complimented Wajjians, “they maintain, respect, reverence and make offerings to them (the mounds or stupas or chaityas) and that they keep up without diminution the ancient offerings, the ancient observances, and the ancient sacrifices righteously made”. Therefore, Cunningham maintains that these mounds were pre-Buddhist. (AGI, p 379).

25.  Nepala: Nepala might be about 1000 miles in circuit consisting of seven streams of river Kosi,  named Sapta Kausiki. The raja of Nepal was a Kshatriya belonging to Lichhavi race. Curiously, the kings of Tibet, and Ladak were also Lichhavis. Cunningham thinks that they might be off-shoots of Nepal royal family. The Lichhavi  conquest of Nepal was estimated by Cunningham to BC 4.

26.  Magadha: The province of Magadha was about 833 miles in circuit, bounded by the Ganges on the north, by the districts of Banaras on the west, by Hiranya Parvata or Mongiron on the east, and Kirana Suvarna or Singbhum on the south. The capital of Magadha was known as Kusumapura but it was deserted when Hwen Thsang visited. The old city was 11 2/3 miles in circuit. The new town, Pataliputa pura, was called as capital of India by the Greeks. Megasthenes gives a clear description of the city. It was 25 ¼ miles in circuit. According to Vayu Purana,  the city of Kusumapura or Pataliputra was founded by Raja Udayaswa, grandson of Ajatasatru, a well known contemporary of Buddha. Ajatasatru’s ministers were engaged in building a fort in the village Patali to check the Vrijis. Buddha predicted that it would grow into a great city. The city was completed during the reign of Udaya, the grandson of Ajatasatru about the year 450 BC. The position of the city was at the junction of Ganges and Gandak (Hiranyavati) now known as river Sona (gold). The Magadha was the scene of Buddha’s early career as a religious reformer. It possesses a greater number of holy places connected to Buddhism than any other province in India.[lxvii] Cunningham gives the details of the Buddhist sites described by Hwen Thsang. (AGI, pp 384-401). Some of these sites are also important   from Puranic point of view. Kusagarapura (The town of Kusa grass) was a city in ruins. On the hill near the city,  it is believed that sage Vyasa had formally dwelt. The ruins of that house was still existing at that time. There was a big cave which people called “the Palace of Asuras”. There is a Mount called Vipula which Cuunningham identifies with Chaityaka of Mahabharata. In the neighborhood of Gaya, in an another Buddhist site, just opposite the village Giryek, two parallel ranges of hills stretch towards the north-east of which one is lower than the other in height. The lower peak on the east is crowned with a solid tower of brickwork well known as Jarasandh-ka-baithak or Jarasandha’s throne (Mahabharat) while on the other there are ruins of Buddhist vihara.

27.  Hiranya Parvata: Cunningham fixes its limits as extending from Lakhi Sarai to Sultanganj on the Ganges in the north and from the western end of Parsanth hill to the junction and estimated its circuit as 350 miles. The capital city of the kingdom stood at Mount Hiranya (Golden Mountain). Cunningham identifies the mountain as Modagiri mentioned in Mahabharat.

28.  Champa: Champa was the old name for Bhagalpur surrounded by Ganges. Its circuit was about 667 miles bounded by the Ganges on the north and by Hiranya-Parvata or Mongir on the west.

29.  Kankjol: Kankjo might have comprised the whole of hill country to the south and west of Rajmahal with the plains lying between the hills and the Bhagirathi river as far south as Mushirabad. This tract might be 300 miles in circuit.

30.  Paundra Vardhana: The country[lxviii] bounded by the Mahanadi on the west and Tista and Brahmaputa on the east and the Ganges on the south. It was 667 miles in circuit.

31.  Jajhoti: It corresponds with the modern district of Bundelkhand. Its capital was Khajuraho. The country was 667 miles in circuit comprising all country to the south of the Jumna and Ganges, from the Betwa river on the west of the temple Vindhyavasini Devi on the east  and Bilhari near the sources of  the Narbada river on the south. Jajhoti Brahmins[lxix] were well distributed over the whole province. Khajuraho has most magnificent group of Hindu temples. A traditional story is connected with Mahoba (Mahotsavanagar), another ancient city in the region. The Chandelas sprang from Hemavati, a Brahmin girl, through Chadrama, the Moon around 800 AD. (AGI p 410).

32.  Maheswarapura: The kingdom was 500 miles in circuit extending from Dumoh and Leoni on the west to the source of Narbada on the east.

33.  Ujjain: The kingdom was 1000 miles in circuit. It was bounded by Malwa on the west. It was under the rule of Brahman Raja. The temples of gods were very numerous.

34.  Malawa: Malawa was bound by Vadari on the north, Balabhi on the west, Ujjain on the east and Maharashtra on the south. It might be 167 miles in circuit with the ancient Dhara (Dharanagari) as capital. Hwen Thsang writes that Magadha and Malawa were especially esteemed for Buddhist studies. Malawa was having hundreds of monasteries and no  less than twenty thousand monks of the school f Sammatiyas. Fifty years before his visit, Malawa was ruled by a staunch Buddhist  king, Siladitya. (AGI, p 415).

35.  Kheda: Kheda (the present Kaira) was extending from the bank of Sabarmati on the west to the great bend of the Mahi river on the north-east and to Baroda in the south. In shape a rough square.  It was 500 miles in circuit.

36.  Anandapura: The district was 333 miles in circuit and dependent on Malawa.

37.  Vadari or Eder: The size of the province was 1000 miles in circuit. Its boundaries might be Ajmer and Ranthambhore to the north, the Loni and Chambal rivers on the east and west, and the Malwa frontier on the south. Pliny described that the region was possessing “extensive mines of gold and silver”. And so “the Gulf of Khambay was the great emporium of Indian trade with the west” opines Cunningham. (AGI, p 421).

Eastern India

The Eastern India comprised Assam and Bengal proper together with the Delta of Ganges, Sambhalpur, Orissa and Ganjam. There were six kingdoms in Eastern India according to Hwen Thsang. These are, Kamarupa, Samatata, Tamralipti, Kirana Suvarna, Odra and Ganjam.

1.     Kamarupa: Kamarupa was the ancient name of Assam. The territory was 1667 miles in circuit comprising the whole valley of the Brahmaputra river or modern Assam, together with Kusa-Viahara and Butan. The Brahmaputra Valley was in turn divided into three sub regions, Sadiya, Assam proper and Kamarup.  Kamarup was the most powerful state also the nearest to the rest of India. Kusa-Vihara was the richest part of the country. Therefore, it was for sometime capital of the country, The chief city was Kamatipura. The old capital of Kamarup was Gohati on the south bank of Brahmaputra. On the east, Kamarup touched the frontiers of  “western barbarians” of the Chinese province Shu. The king in the 7^th century was Brahman, named Bhaskara Varmma who claimed descent from Vishnu. His family were ruling the country for 1000 generations, but he became a staunch Buddhist and accompanied Harsha Vardhana in his procession from Pataliputra to Kanoj.  (AGI, p421-3).

2.     Samatata: The country of Samatata is mentioned in the inscription of Samudra Gupta in which it was coupled with Nepala. It is also mentioned in the geographical list of   Varahamihira. Hwen Thsang describes it as ‘a low, moist country on the seashore’. Samatata might have been the Delta of the Ganges and was about 500 miles in circuit.

3.     Tamralipti: The kingdom of Tamralipti was about 250 miles in circuit, situated on the seashore and the surface of the country was wet and low. Tamralipti was the Sanskrit name of Tamluk which is situated on Rupnarayan river. It was small fertile land lying to the westward of the Hughli river.

4.     Kirana-Suvarna: The kingdom was 750 miles in circuit comprising all petty hill-states lying between Medinpur and Sirguja on the east and west, and between the sources of the Damuda and Vaitarani on the north and south. The province was occupied by wild tribes with a collective name of Kols. The people speak various dialects of two distinct languages belonging to two different races, Munda and Uroons. The language of Uroons is connected to Tamil where as that of Mundas to northern tribes. The name of Kirana means man of mixed race and  Suvarnas are barbarian Suvaras or Suars. In the 7^th century, the king of this country was Sasangha who is famed as a great persecutor of Buddhists. (AGI, p 430)

5.     Odra or Orissa:  The province was 1167 miles in circuit, extended to Hughli and Damuda rivers on the north and to the Godavari in the south. But the old province, Odra-desa was limited to the valley of Mahanadi and to the lower course of Suvarnriksha river. It comprised the present districts of Kuttak and Sambhalpur and a portion of Medinipur. The city of Puri is famous for the Jagannath temple. The ancient metropolis of the country was Kotah on the bank of Mahanadi river. In sixth century, Raja Jajati Kesari established a new capital called Jajatipura (the modern Jajipura). Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills have Buddhist caves. (AGI p.431-2).

6.     Ganjam: The district was about 167 miles in circuit and the territory was confined to the small valley of Risikulya river. Ganjam, the old capital, was situated near Chilka lake and ocean. The king in the seventh century might be Lalitendra Kesari who was later defeated by Harsha Vardhana. Afterwards it was annexed to Orissa. (AGI, p 432-4).

Southern India

         Southern India comprised whole of the peninsula to the south of the Tapti and Mahanadi rivers from Nasik on the west to Ganjam on the east. It was divided into nine separate kingdoms, exclusive of Ceylon which was not considered as belonging to India. They were: Kalinga, Kosala, Andhra, Dhnakataka, Jorya, Dravida, Malakuta, Konkan and Maharashtra.

1.     Kalinga : The kingdom was 833 miles in circuit. Its boundary in the south might be river Godavari, to its west Andhra and to the north Ganjam. Its original capital was Srikakulam. Mahendragiri mountan rage which retained its name from the Mahabharata times is its special feature. Rajahmundry was the capital of Vengi , the eastern branch of the Chalukyas. During the life time of the Buddha, Kalinga was famous for the manufacture of fine muslins. After the death of Buddha, the king of Kalinga obtained one of the teeth of the Buddha, over which he built a magnificent Stupa at Dantapura, says Cunningham (AGI, p 436-8).

2.     Kosala : The ancient Kosala might be the present province of Berar, or Gondwana. The kingdom of Kosala was 1000 miles in circuit and Cunningham opines that it was bounded by Ujjain on the north, by Maharashtra on the west, by Orissa on the east and by Andhra and Kalinga on the south. The position of its capital is difficult to be fixed among the major cities of the province, Chanda, Nagpur, Amaravati and Elichpur which was stated to be nearly 7 miles in circuit. (AGI, p 438-44).

3.     Andhra: The province of Andhra was in 500 miles in circuit and frontiers are not mentioned. Cunningham presumes that the Godavari river to the north and east. It is also limit of the Telugu language towards the north. To the west, it meets the kingdom of Maharashtra. The territory cannot have extended beyond the Manjira branch of the Godavari to Bhadrachalam on the south-east. Andhras are mentioned by Pliny that they possessed thirty fortified cities. The Chinese pilgrim states that language of the people of Andhra was different from that of Central India but the forms of the written characters were the most part the same. The old Nagari alphabet was still in use. Cunningham infers that the Telugu characters which are found in inscriptions of the tenth century had not been adopted in the south. (AGI, p 446).

4.     Danakakotta: Cunningham identifies the place with Dharanikota or Amaravati on the banks of Krishna river.[lxx] The province was 1000 miles in circuit. The boundaries of the province as nearly as possible with the limits of the Telugu language which extended to Kulbarga and Pennakonda on the west, and to Tripati and Pulikat lake on the south, Andhra and Kalinga on the north and on the east by the sea.

5.     Choliya or Joriya:  This is a small district of 400 miles in circuit. The country was not properly identified.

6.     Dravida: The country was 1000 miles in circuit and its capital Kanchi[lxxi] was 5 miles in circuit.

7.     Malakuta or Madura: The country was the southern end of the peninsula.  The country was 500 miles in circuit. Cunnigham infers that Madura might be the capital city of the province.

8.     Konkana : The country was 833 miles in circuit. It might be including the whole line of coast from Bombay to Mangalor and might have extended inland far beyond the line of Western Ghats.

9.     Maharashtra: The province was 1000 miles in circuit. The tract had Malwa on the north, Kosala and Andhra on the east, Konkana on the south and the sea on the west. Its capital was 5 miles in circuit. Cunningham is inclined to suggest the Paithan or Pratishthana might be its capital.

Cunningham adds a small note on Ceylon at the end of narration though it was not considered a part of India. Hwen Thsang wanted to visit Ceylon because Buddhism was popularized there during Asoka’s reign. Buddhism was State religion for some time. But he heard that there was political trouble caused by the assassination of the reigning king. So, he changed his mind and took return path through Konkan and Maharashtra and North-west, back to his country.  The ancient name of the island was Sinhala. The meaning of its original name is Ratna-dwipa. The Greeks called Taprobane. The island, according to Sir Emerson Tennet, is about 650 miles in circuit being 271 ½ miles in length from north to south and 137 ½ miles from east to west. Cunningham states that the Ceylonese were barbarians until the landing of Vijaya in 543 BC; and there is no satisfactory evidence of any Aryan connection or intercourse before the visit of Mahendra, the son of Asoka, in BC 242. (AGI p 472).

      Cunningham added three Appendices to his book : A) Approximate Chronology of Hwen Thsang’s Travels, B) Measures of Distance and C) Correction of Ptolemy’s Eastern Longitudes followed by very useful Index.

Some Observations:

            Alexander Cunningham was distinguished as the first Archaeological Surveyor officially appointed by the English Government in India after his retirement from military service. Later, he was designated as the Director of the Department of Archaeology. While he was in military service as Engineer he had the advantage of surveying the frontier provinces for military purposes. He lamented that many ancient sites (mounds) were dug indiscriminately for laying roads in the frontier regions for military purposes and used the mud, bricks and stones in the constructions. The north-west region where Hindu kingdoms and culture existed centuries before Christ came under barbarian tribes from central Asia in the medieval times. The towns and monasteries were destroyed beyond recognition. He found that most of the Buddhist structures –stupas, chaityas and universities, were razed to ground during the Muslim invasions. Muslim conquerors treated the Buddhism equally idolatrous with the Hinduism. They persecuted both.  He came across many such ruins of old sites during his general survey and took interest in the archaeological exploration of these regions simultaneously. He could also seek cooperation of his colleagues in the military service in locating preserving certain sites. He must be remembered for long for preserving some of the sites. He sustained his interest in history throughout even after he returned to his motherland. His contribution to numismatics is also praiseworthy. The present work is a comprehensive one in which he tried to point out various ancient towns on the modern Indian map.

The Greeks did pioneering work in mapping India according to the information they collected from different sources, while the Arabs and Chinese did visit India and travelled in this country. Greeks’ personal acquaintance of India was mostly limited to north-west. Among them, only Megasthenese visited the kingdom of Magadha but probably his movements were confined to its capital city, Pataliputra. He, it seems, was not permitted to travel freely in India, as the ‘Artha Sastra’ had stipulated many conditions on the movements of foreigners in the Mauryan Empire.[lxxii]  Arabs’ personal knowledge was also mostly limited to the West Coast and the Sindh area whereas Chinese pilgrims had toured extensively in India. Among the Chinese, Yuan Chwang (Hwen Thsang) toured entire India and recorded valuable information about our country, people, religious practices, commerce and trade.

Cunningham adopted the classical five-division scheme for his presentation on historical geography of India. What we call, today, the Indian sub-continent including Kabul, Afghanistan etc in the north-west upto Burma in the east, including Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet and Ladakh was then known as ‘one’ India. It has no comparison to the present truncated Republican State. Cunningham’s work on Northern India and Central India was quite exhaustive, but, his description of other divisions was cursory. He made the best use of the Greek notices as primary while describing north-west India  which he called Northern India and took Yuan-Chwang’s travel account as corroborative evidences to identify the ancient towns and the ancient sites in that region. The Central India possessed numerous Buddhist sites and includes the Buddhist Circuit also because the life and career of Buddha was mostly connected to this region. Here, Cunningham took the travelogue of Yuan Chwang as primary and the Greek notices as corroborative evidence for his findings. Cunningham also referred to Sanskrit and Pali sources to some extent in identifying the names of certain places. Indian place names are, of course,  difficult to spell or pronounce in a foreign tongue. Greek and Chinese languages are totally dissimilar to each other. Cunningham had great difficulty in identifying the place names from both Greek and Chinese sources. He took the Sanskrit and Pali versions to spell the names properly. But, he, being a foreigner, might have found it difficult to read the names and to interpret them. At times, he had to depend on the early literal translations of the Puranas and other Indian literature. The similarities and the origin of Indian names might have been more difficult for him to interpret and connect them with historical events.

 Yuan Chwang being a Buddhist monk was basically interested in the centers of Buddhism and the holy places connected to it. While he was reporting on the communities other than his own Faith, his prejudices against them are quite evident. He paid very high tributes to King Harsha Vardhana who was his patron and whom he called the Lord of (entire) North India. Obviously, he did not report much on the other divisions of India – Western, Eastern and Southern India—where the reigning kings were mostly Hindu. Cunningham has literally walked in the foot-steps of the Chinese pilgrim in his narration and so his work is also deficient with regard to those three divisions of India. Apart from that, he had personally travelled only in North India and Narmada River was his boundary in the south. So he had no personal knowledge about the south of Vindhyas according to himself.[lxxiii]

Though Cunningham has not taken the geographical information available in the Puranas, Itihasas, Kavyas etc, as primary for his work, he endeavoured to identify the remote antiquity of some of the places like Mulasthana (Multan) known as Kashyapapura, the capital of Kasyapa Prajapati, father of Daityas and Adityas, in the north-west and the place called Ukala Kshetra in the Central India where Vishnu incarnated in the form of a Boar to kill Hiranyaksha. This reminds us the fact, that serious studies are most welcome from our native scholars to map-up ancient India taking Indian sources as primary. Satguru Sivananda Murtyji[lxxiv] suggests that we need to write the “Geography of History”. We already have history in form of Puranas, Itihasas and Kavyas. What we need is to identify our ancient historical events in their proper geographical locations. This would enable us to authenticate our history from Puranas. The modern Historical Method insists us to put our history in the frame of two co-ordinates – the place and the time. If the place is fixed for a Puranic earthly event[lxxv], the modern techniques of Archaeology like Remote Sensing etc can be employed to explore the sub-strata of the identified site and estimate the time frame of the civilization and culture using modern scientific methods. The antiquity of Hindu civilization based on its ancient cultural values, if proven, is not only a pride of our Bharat but of the humanity at large. If efforts are continued in this direction, Cunningham’s work will serve us as a torch-bearer.

Notes:

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[i] Former Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences and Professor of History (retired), Kakatiya University, Warangal. Email: ysudershanrao@gmail.com. Blog : ysudershanrao@blogspot.com, Mobile +91 9849450116.                                     The author  expresses his gratitude to Satguru Sivananda Murtyji (Bhimunipatnam) for suggesting the theme and for His gracious guidance throughout.

[ii] It is said that Vasco de Gama met with one Ibn Majid and found at him lots of maps and marine devices. The Arabs were well connected with India by sea for trade.                             (http://www.muslimstoday.info/content/story/arabs-founders-geography)

[iii] According to Strabo, Alexander “caused the whole country to be described by men well acquainted with it” –Geographia –ii. 1.6

[iv] Seafaring of Arabs is referred to in the ancient writings of Strabo and Ptolemy. But, only in the middle ages, the Arab Geographers were known to be well-versed in the knowledge of paths, roads and routes. (http://www.muslimstoday.info/content/story/arabs-founders-geography)

[v] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/146594/Sir-Alexander-Cunningham

[vi] The ASI, Government of India has recently published 23 volumes of his reports which run into some five thousand pages. These provide valuable insight into the history of India, particularly about Hindu places of worship which were either demolished completely and masjids and dargahs built there on or those converted to masjids and dargahs after removing symbols and signs of Hindu worship.

[vii] A list of his complete works along with a summary of his biographical memoir is given in the present book, (xiii-xvi).

[viii] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/146594/Sir-Alexander-Cunningham

[ix] http://www.janasangh.com/jsart.aspx?stid=79

[x] See preface to the original edition of the book under review.

[xi] ‘Etude sur la Geographie et les populations primitives du Nord-ouest de l’Inde, d’apres les Hymnes Vediques’, Paris, 1850.

[xii] Idem, XIX

[xiii] Strabo’s Geographia, ii.1.6

[xiv] Hwen Thsang’s travels extended from 629 AD to 645 AD. He visited most of the great cities throuout the country from Kabul and Kashmir to the mouths of Ganges and Indus, and from Nepal to Kanchipura near Madras. He entered Kabul from the north-west, via Bomian, about the end of May 630 AD and returned to China crossing Hindu Kush about 644 AD.

[xv] A Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, Cosmo 2007, p.3. Hereafter,  the page numbers of references from this book are shown in the text or footnotes as (AGI with relevant page numbers).

[xvi] However, Ptolemy’s description of India is completely distorted. Instead of showing the acute angle formed by the meeting of the two coasts of the Peninsula at Cape Comorin is changed to a single coastline, running  almost in a straight from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganges. (AGI, p7)

[xvii] 1 British mile is 8.70827286 stadia.

[xviii] Elphinston, History of India, intro- p.1. (AGI, p2.)

[xix] Journal of Asiatic Society, Bengal, (AGI, p.4)

[xx] Chinese sources say that India was known to them in the second century BC during the reign of Emperor Wuti of later Han dynasty. It was then called Yuan-tu or Yin-tu that is Hindu, Shintu, or Sindhu. Later it is known as Thian-tu. India was sometimes called Magadha, after the name of its best known and richest province and sometimes the “kingdom of Brahmanas” after the name of its principal inhabitants. (AGI, 9)

[xxi] It is found in the official records of Thang dynasty. But, the earliest notice of it could be found in the year 477 AD when the king of Western India sent  an ambassador to China and again only a few years later (502 and 504 AD), the  kings of Northern and Southern India followed suit according to their official records.  (AGI, 8&9).

[xxii] Ptolemy called this city Kabura or Ortospana as capital city which was supplanted by Alexandria during the Greek domination and restored by the Indo-Scythian princes. (AGI p16)

[xxiii] In Scythian, ‘ku’ means water. Historians of Alexander also noticed the River Kophes.

[xxiv] It was also known as Ajuna , may be a corrupt form of Ujjana in Pali and Udyana (garden) in  Sanskrit. M Vivien de St Martin states that Udyanapura was te old name of Nagarahara. (AGI p39)

[xxv] Strabo called it Gandharitis and  Ptolemy  Gandarae. The Chinese pilgrims called it Kien-to-lo.

[xxvi] Fa Hian called it  Fo-lu-sha or Parasha.

[xxvii] Chinese pilgrim Sung Yun says “amongst the topes of western countries this is the first”. (AGI p67)

[xxviii] They were Tangi, Shirpao, Umrazai, Turangzai, Usmanzai, Rajur, Charsada and Parang. They extend over a distance of  15 miles.

[xxix] Ujjana was the Pali form of Udyana.

[xxx] Subhavastu or Suvastu (Sanskrit) and Suastus of Arian.

[xxxi] Majjhima in Pali. Madhyantika was the name of the teacher who was sent to spread Buddhism in Kashmir and the Himavanta country after the Third Synod conducted during Ashoka’s reign.

[xxxii] The length of the province along the river Indus from east to west was about 150 miles and breadth about 80 miles  from the mountains of Deoseb to the Karakoram range.

[xxxiii] Fa-Hian called it Po-na or Bana.

[xxxiv] Hwen Thsang estimated the length of the circuit to be 1166 miles.

[xxxv] Kamraj was the northern half of the valley and Meraj the southern half.

[xxxvi] Founded by Asoka (BC 263 to 226).

[xxxvii] Rajatarangani records that Jaloka, son of Asoka, built this temple. The hill was then known as Jyeshteswara. (AGI p81).

[xxxviii] A strange story is recorded in the Muslim chronicles (Ferishta and Abul Fazl), a copper plate inscription was found in the debris of a Siva temple destroyed by Sikandar which reads that the demolition was predicted that the temple would be destroyed after the expiration of 1100 years by a person named Sikandar.

[xxxix] Fa Hian called it Chu-sha-ski-lo means ‘severed head’ based on the legend that the Buddha betowed his head in alms at this place to a tiger.  A Stupa was built  at the site of the ‘head-gift’. The hill range is named  Margala which means idiomatically, ‘cutting the neck’.

[xl] Hwen Thsang called it Ta-cho-shi-la. He visited in 630 AD and again in 643 AD. (AGI p92).

[xli] Ketaksh might be corrupted form of Swetavasa or ‘the white robes’ or Khetavasa . Cunningham says that could be the holy place for the white-robed Jain sect or Buddhists. Brahmins also claimed the place for themselves as it was the place where ‘Siva’s eyes rained when he heard the death of his wife, Sati’.

[xlii] May be modern Punch.

[xliii] AGI p.145-148

[xliv] Ptolemy’s  Kaspaire ( AGI p199)

[xlv] Hwen Thsang called it Meu-lo-san-pu-lo which M. Vivien de St Mrtin transcribed as Mulasthanipura. (AGI p197).

[xlvi] The name might mean “Middle City” to denote it as the capital city. (AGI p210)

[xlvii] A detailed account of the heroic resistance to Alexander by the Brahman cities were added by Cunningham (AGI pp225-234)

[xlviii] Hwen Thsang called it  Kiu-che-lo and  its capital, Pi-lo-mi-lo. (AGI p262).

[xlix] Hwen Thsang called it Fa-la-pi. It is called Surashtrene by Ptolemy and the author of ‘Periplus’.

[l] Karka was fifth in descent from Govinda.

[li] This Govinda might be the king of Baroda who occupied Ballabhi and reestablished the old family.

[lii] Mo-hi was identified with  Mahi or Makwa.

[liii] Hwen Thsang called it , Po-lu-kie-cho-po.

[liv] Parasu Rama is said to have split blood of the Kshatriyas in this place. (AGI, p.279). At this place , great battle took place at this place between Kauravas and Pandavas. The place is connected with many historical and puranic events some of them are detailed  here (AGI p281-283).

[lv] See Kurukshetra Mahatmya and Vishnu Purana

[lvi] May be the present Rohikhand.

[lvii] Please note wherever the  ‘present’ is used in the text, it denotes the times of Cunningham , the late 19^th century.

[lviii] North Panchala was Rohilkhand. And that of South Panchala was Kampilya. Drona defeated Drupada and kept North panchala for himself and allowed Drupada to rule South Panchala. (AGI p305).

[lix] Cunningham takes this date for the Mahabharata War.

[lx] The mound is 3250 ft in breadth at base, about 44 ft high and 2 miles in circuit.

[lxi] Haya Mukha means Horse-face. But Cunningham suggests it could also  be Ayomukha which means iron-face which could the name of one of the Danavas. (AGI, p 326).

[lxii] Bakkula was born to a mother in Kosambi when she was bathing in river Jumna. This infant was swallowed by a fish and the fixh was caught and sold to a noble family in Benaras. The child was boughtup by the family. After some time knowing about this, the original mother went to Benaras and claimed the child. The matter was then referred to the king who judged that the child was Bakula (belonging to two kulas or castes) and so he belonged to two mothers. (AGI, p 332)

[lxiii] Visakha  episode is described by Cunningham in detail. (AGI, p338-42).

[lxiv] Cunningham gives a detailed account of this  incident of  Buddha’s life. (AGI p 357-61)

[lxv] Metamorphically called, “to turn the Wheel of Dhamma (Law)”.

[lxvi] The eight clans of Vrijis: Vaisali, Kesariya, Janakpur, Navandgarh, Simrun, Darbanga, Puraniya and Motihari. (AGI, p 378).

[lxvii] The chief places are Buddha-Gaya, Kukkutapada, Rajagriha, Kusagarapura, Nalanda, Indrasilagruha and Kapatika monastery.

[lxviii] The Sanskrit name is Vardhamana. (AGI  p404)

[lxix] Jajhoti is a corrupt form of Yajur-hota who follow Yajur Veda.

[lxx] Cunnigham discusses at length to come to this understanding with regard to fixing Dhanakakkota. (AGI pp 447-459).

[lxxi] Kanchipuram or Cajeevaram in Sanskrit.

[lxxii] His report on the native government and its organization in general and the governance of capital  City in particular  differ from the  ‘Artha Sastra’

[lxxiii] A few maps showing the expedition of Alexander in Sindh and the travels of Hwen Thsang from the book are given in the appendix as ready reference

[lxxiv] Mahamahopadhyaya, Dr K Sivananda Murty  (Guruji), ‘Anandavan’, Bheemunipatnam, A.P. India, (531163)

[lxxv] Puranas speak of the events happening at earthly plane and other non-earthly planes also. But History is concerned with the life of human beings on earth.